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minimum of effort。 If remembering your dreams is important to you； try the following tips：
1。 Keep writing material or a tape recorder next to your bed； and be sure that you can turn on
a light to write by without getting out of bed。
2。 Before going to bed； tell yourself that you are going to wake up after a dream。 If you are
unable to obey your mand； try setting a gentle alarm for two hours after retirement and
every two hours thereafter。
3。 When you wake up； keep your eyes closed； and review the dream before you record it。
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
4。 Make a questionnaire or checklist to remind you of the information you want to record。
This might include such things as the setting； actors； activities； outes； and； perhaps
most important； the emotional tone of the dream。
THE PARADOXICAL NATURE OF REM
REM sleep has been referred to as paradoxical sleep； meaning that during REM sleep； the activity of
the brain closely approximates that of waking state activity。 We know that we dream during REM；
and that we have rapid eye movements for which this state is named； but what other things are
happening that make this state “approximately” that of the waking state？ Several manifestations of
this sleep state insofar as we are able to determine； are unique to REM。 These things apparently
happen during REM and at no other time during the sleep cycle。 What are they？
ATONIA
During REM sleep； we experience atonia—we lose muscle tone； our muscles bee flaccid； and we
are virtually paralyzed。 This manifestation disappears within a fraction of a second following
waking； but can be a bit scary if we try to get out of bed immediately on waking； only to find that we
cannot do so； at least instantaneously。 The reason for atonia is that neural messages from the brain
stem going to the major muscle groups are inhibited during REM。 These messages originate in the
pons； a structure that sits just at the top of the brain stem； and the inhibition of these neural
impulses has probably kept many of us from injuring ourselves if we were to wander around in a
not quite conscious state。
SEXUAL AROUSAL
Both males and females experience sexual arousal—evinced by tumescence in males and
lubrication and engorgement of genital tissues in females—during REM sleep。
OTHER PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES
Increases in both blood pressure and heart rate occur during REM。 These functions increase from
the low levels seen during Stage 4 sleep to levels that closely approximate those of a waking state of
consciousness。
MEMORY PROCESSES
Thought and memory organization also occur during REM； as housekeeping type of functions。
Most of us have awakened to discover that a problem that was vexing us the night before suddenly
seems to have “solved itself” over the course of the night； and we wonder why we did not see the
solution yesterday。 Perhaps this aspect of REM explains why our mothers told us not to worry
because “everything will be better in the morning。”
INCORPORATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULUS
Environmental sounds are frequently incorporated into dreams。 The sound of a car backfiring in
the street outside may be incorporated into one’s dreams as a gunshot； or a slamming of a door；
while the thunderclap in a thunderstorm may be incorporated into the dreams of bat veterans
as ining artillery fire。 As you can see； far from being a truly “sleeping” state； REM sleep is very
susceptible to impact by the outside environment。
99
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
TIMELINE
Year Event
1637 Rene Descartes published Discourse on Method。
1815 Napoleon was defeated at the battle of Waterloo and banished to St。 Helena。
18611865
The American Civil War was fought。
1881 Pasteur and Koch discovered the germ theory of disease。
1902 William James published The Varieties of Religious Experience。
1917 The Bolshevik Revolution was fought in Russia。
1932 Carl Jung published Modern Man in Search of a Soul。
1938 d…Lysergic Acid Diethylamide…25 （LSD） was discovered by Dr。 Albert Hoffman。
1948 Israel became an independent nation。
1953 The genetic code was broken。
1954 Aldous Huxley published The Doors of Perception。
1985 Stephen LaBerge published Lucid Dreaming。
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Baars； B。； & Wright I。 （1997）。 In the Theater of Consciousness： The Workspace of the Mind。 New York：
Oxford University Press。 Reviews research on consciousness and introduces the global
workspace theory； in which consciousness occupies a workspace much like the stage in a
theater。
Donald； M。 （1991）。 Origins of the Modern Mind： Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition。
Cambridge； MA： Harvard University Press。 A fascinating perspective on modern man；
incorporating data from the field of cultural anthropology； linguistics； parative anatomy；
parative neuroanatomy； and cognition to offer an explanation of how we got “here” from
“there。”
Gazzaniga； M。 S。 （1988）。 Mind Matters： How Mind and Brain Interact to Create Our Conscious Lives。
Boston： Houghton Mifflin。 Discusses mental disorders； psychopathology； and the role of
neuropsychology in these issues。
Gazzaniga； M。 S。 （1992）。 Nature’s Mind： The Biological Roots of Thinking； Emotions； Sexuality；
Language； and Intelligence。 New York： Basic Books。 Shows how natural selection influences
everything from depression； to language development； to substance abuse。 Presents the nature
versus nurture controversy in a new light。 An excellent book by an eminent scientist。
Goleman； D。； Wilber； K。； Tart； C。； & Walsh； R。 （1993）。 The Riddle of Consciousness。 Los Angeles：
Perigee Books。 Provides four different views on consciousness by four leading thinkers in the
field。
Herzog； P。 S。 （1991）。 Conscious and Unconscious： Freud’s Dynamic Distinction Reconsidered。 Madison；
CT： International Universities Press。 A new perspective on consciousness and unconsciousness；
from the psychoanalytic position。
Horowitz； M。 J。 （ed。）。 （1988）。 Psychodynamics and Cognition。 Chicago： University of Chicago Press。
Based on papers presented at a workshop held at the Center for Advanced Study in the
Behavioral Sciences； Stanford University； and sponsored by the John D。 and Catherine T。
MacArthur Foundation。
Huxley； A。 （1954）。 The Doors of Perception。 New York： Harper。 A classic text on the experience of
psychedelic drugs。 The rock band “The Doors” was named after this book。
LaBerge； S。 （1985）。 Lucid Dreaming。 New York： St。 Martin’s Press。 The seminal work on lucid
dreaming。 Introduces the phenomenon of lucid dreaming and presents the original research on
the topic。 A classic in the field。
Palfai； T。 （1997）。 Drugs and Human Behavior。 （2nd ed。）。 Dubuque： Brown & Benchmark Publishers。
An interesting introduction to drugs and their influence on human behavior。 Reviews the
history of drug use； surveys recent research； and describes the effects of drugs on normal and
abnormal functioning。
Penfield； W。 （1992）。 The Mind and the Brain。 Boston： Birkhaeuser。 D