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with local time as we travel east or west across time zones。 The traveler develops a double circadian
rhythm； the new one added to the old。 This leads to double peaks and valleys of energy。 Over a few
days； the new circadian rhythm takes over as the body and brain reset their biological clock to local
time。
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
The Stuff of Which Dreams Are Made
Throughout history； and probably prehistory as well； humans have thought that dreams have
special significance； that they have a divine source； predict future events； or prescribe a course of
action。 A primary duty of wise elders in many cultures was to interpret dreams。 One wonders how
preliterate tribes react to their dreams； to these images that invade their sleep。 Perhaps they think
that some alien being has taken over their body or that they are receiving a message from the spirits
of the earth or the demons of the forest。
The idea that dreams have personal meaning was introduced in modern times by Freud when he
published The Interpretation of Dreams in 1900。 Although it took six years to sell the first printing of
600 copies； it has bee a classic。 Freud argued that “dreams are impartial； spontaneous products
of the unconscious psyche； they show us the unvarnished truth。” Freud thought that the vigilance
of the ego relaxed during sleep； allowing primitive and forbidden sexual and aggressive urges to
escape from the unconscious。 This material was so threatening to our waking state of
consciousness that the disgusting desires of the unconscious were disguised in dreams。 It is
interesting to note that Freud； like Biblical characters and people of the past； thought that only a
wise man or woman （or psychoanalyst） could interpret dreams correctly。
Freud thought that there was a universal set of symbols used by the unconscious to disguise the
hidden content of dreams。 For example； dreams of flying signify the desire for sexual adventure；
elongated objects such as trees and pencils symbolize the penis； containers； such as closets； rooms；
ovens； and automobiles represent the vagina； and sexual intercourse is disguised as riding a horse
or shooting a gun。
Carl Jung was a member of Freud’s inner circle； and later broke away from Freud because of
theoretical disagreements。 He believed that the “general function of dreams is to restore
psychological balance；” and that important messages in dreams could only be interpreted from a
series of dreams that occurred over time。 Jung estimated that he analyzed at least 80；000 dreams
during his professional career。
Anecdotal evidence to support Freud and Jung’s ideas about dreams exists； but their theories
cannot be experimentally supported or rejected because of problems in doing the necessary
research。 Research on dreaming was stimulated in the early 1950s when two investigators；
Aserinsky and Kleitman at the University of Chicago； established the relationship between REM
sleep and dreaming； but their research does not answer the questions posed by the theories of Freud
and Jung。 Some of the more frequently asked questions about dreams and dreaming follow。
DOES EVERYONE DREAM？
Some people claim that they never dream； but research tells us that everyone dreams。 People who
claim that they do not dream simply do not remember their dreams。 Dreams are usually not stored
in long…term memory； and they are lost unless they are reviewed or recorded immediately on
waking； before other material replaces them in the short…term memory。
ARE WE MORE LIKELY TO HAVE GOOD DREAMS OR BAD DREAMS？
Investigators who have collected and studied dreams have found that bad dreams are more
monly recalled than good dreams。 Dreams are more likely to involve failure； misfortune； and
frustration than success and pleasant emotions。
WHAT DO PEOPLE DREAM ABOUT？
Falling or being chased are among the most mon dream themes reported。 The appearance of
celebrities in dreams is also mon。 Many dreams involve frustration： trying repeatedly but
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
unsuccessfully to do something； finding yourself nude in public places； arriving late to catch a
plane or to take an exam； and losing important papers or treasured objects。 Sex is not among the
more mon dream themes。 The occurrence of penile and clitoral erections during dreams is a
conitant of the REM state； and is apparently unrelated to the content of the dream。
CAN PEOPLE CONTROL THE CONTENTS OF THEIR DREAMS？
Research shows that people do have some control over their dreams； and that this ability to have
“lucid dreams” can be taught。 Stephen LaBerge； the leading researcher on lucid dreams； relates the
experience of lucid dreaming to the “Holodeck” on Star Trek the New Generation。 Once a person is
lucid in a dream； they can take control of it and direct its content and conclusion。 LaBerge also
suggests that lucid dreaming may have more pragmatic uses than just entertainment。 The
additional time of consciousness while dreaming can be used to work through personal problems；
planning； and reviewing past events。 Such lucid reflection while in a relaxed sleep state may in the
future be shown to enhance psychological health。 It has been reported that the Senoi people of
Malaysia teach children to control their dreams from an early age。 Have you ever had a “lucid”
dream？
One simple technique used to teach lucid dreaming is to bee more “mindful” of your state of
consciousness by repeatedly asking yourself； “Am I dreaming？” during the day。 Once in the habit
of asking yourself this simple question while awake； you may ask the same question while
dreaming。 Answering the question “yes” may lead to the onset of a lucid dream。
WHY DO PEOPLE DREAM？
Several explanations for dreaming have been offered。 Freud thought dreams preserved our sanity
by allowing us to gratify forbidden or unrealistic wishes。 Information…processing theorists suggest
that the function of dreams is to assimilate new data into memory and to jettison mental garbage。
The activation…synthesis theory says that dreams result when the brain tries to make sense of
random neural firing that occurs during sleep。
DO PEOPLE NEED TO DREAM？
A number of studies have been done on dream deprivation。 Participants are awakened as soon as
rapid eye movements begin to occur。 The results show that as dream deprivation continues； REM
periods occur more and more frequently； and participants bee harder to arouse。 In addition；
participants who have been dream deprived dream more than usual when they are allowed to sleep
normally。 Although some participants have bee irritable after a night or two of dream
deprivation； most seem to adjust to it。 We do not know what effect it would have on a person if
dream deprivation were continued over an extended period。
WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IF YOU WANT TO REMEMBER YOUR DREAMS？
Dreams are fragile； so if you want to remember them you will need to be able to record them with a
minimum of effort。 If remembering your dreams is important to you； try the following tips：
1。