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stimuli are mild and pleasant
b） Strong emotions such as fear or anger activate the body’s emergency
reaction system； which prepares the body for potential danger
c） Integration of hormonal and neural aspects of arousal is controlled by
the hypothalamus and the limbic system
（i） The amygdala （part of the limbic system） serves as a gateway
for emotion and a filter for memory
（ii） The hypothalamus； located in the cortex； is involved as
switching station； with its connections to other parts of the
body
3。 James…Lange Theory of Body Reaction
a） Holds that emotion stems from bodily feedback； in which the
perception of stimulus causes autonomic arousal and other bodily
actions that lead to the experience of an emotion
b） Considered a peripheralist theory； it assigns the most prominent role
in the chain of emotional response to visceral reactions of the ANS
4。 Cannon…Bard Theory of Central Neural Processes
a） Takes a centralist focus on the actions of the central nervous system
（CNS）
b） Four objections to James…Lange Theory：
（i） Visceral activity is irrelevant for emotional experience
（ii） Visceral responses are similar across different arousal
situations； e。g。； love making and fear
（iii） Many emotions are not distinguishable from others simply by
their physiological ponents
（iv） ANS responses are too slow to be the source of emotions
elicited in a split…second
c） Cannon…Bard proposed that emotion requires the brain to intercede
between input of stimulus and output of response
d） Proposed that emotion…arousing stimuli have simultaneous effects；
causing both bodily arousal and the subjective experience of emotion
（via the cortex）
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
5。 Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion
a） Schachter proposed emotion to be the joint effect of physiological
arousal and cognitive appraisal； with both necessary for emotion to
occur
b） Lazarus maintains that “emotional experience cannot be understood
solely in terms of what happens in the person or in the brain； but
grows out of ongoing transactions with the environment that are
evaluated。”
c） Challenges to Lazarus…Schachter
（i） Awareness of physiological arousal is not a necessary
condition
（ii） Experiencing strong arousal without obvious cause does not
lead to a neutral； undifferentiated state
（iii） Zajonc demonstrates possibility of having preferences
without inferences； and to feel without knowing why—the
mere exposure effect
d） Safest conclusion is that cognitive appraisal is an important； but not
the only； aspect of emotional experience
C。 Functions of Emotion
1。 Motivation and Arousal
a） Emotions serve a motivational function by arousing the individual to
take action with regard to an experienced or imagined event
b） Emotions direct and sustain behaviors toward specific goals
c） Emotions provide feedback by amplifying or intensifying selected life
experiences； by signaling that a response is significant or has self…
relevance
d） Emotions give an awareness of inner conflicts
e） Yerkes…Dodson law： Performance of difficult tasks decreases； as
arousal increases； whereas performance of easy tasks increases as
arousal increases
（i） Relationship between arousal and performance has a U…
shaped function； predicting that too little or too much arousal
impairs performance
（ii） Explores possibility that optimal arousal level produces peak
performance
（iii） Key to level of arousal is task difficulty
2。 Social Functions of Emotion
a） Emotions serve the function of regulating social interactions
（i） Stimulation of prosocial behaviors
（ii） Aid in social munication
3。 Emotional Effects on Cognitive Functioning
a） Mood…congruent processing： Material congruent with one’s prevailing
mood is more likely to be attended to； noticed； and processed at a
deeper level than noncongruent material
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CHAPTER 13： EMOTION； STRESS； AND HEALTH
b） Mood…dependent memory refers to recall of a previous emotional event
that occurs when the individual is in the same mood as during the
previous event
II。Stress of Living
A。 Definitions
1。 Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus events that
disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope
2。 Stressor refers to a stimulus event that places a demand on an organism for
some kind of adaptive response
B。 Physiological Stress Reactions
1。 Acute stress refers to transient states of arousal； with typically clear onset and
offset patterns
2。 Chronic stress refers to a state of enduring arousal； continuing over time； in
which demands placed on the organism are perceived by the organism as
being greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with
them
3。 Emergency Reactions to Acute Threats
a） Cannon first described the fight…or…flight response； a sequence of
internal activity that prepare the body to either defend itself or to run
away when faced with danger
b） Physiology of the stress response：
（i） Hypothalamus referred to as the stress center due to its dual
functions in emergencies：
（a） Control of autonomic nervous system
（b） Activation of the pituitary gland
（ii） ANS regulates activities of organs
（a） The adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and
norepinephrine
（b） The pituitary to secrete thyrotrophic hormone （TTH）
（stimulating the thyroid） and adrenocorticotrophic
hormone （ACTH） （stimulating the adrenal cortex）
4。 The General Adaptation Syndrome （GAS） and Chronic Stress
a） Selye described the GAS as including three stages：
（i） Alarm reaction
（ii） Stage of resistance
（iii） Stage of exhaustion
b） Process is successful at restoration of body’s balance only when
stressor is short…lived or acute
c） Chronic stress promises integrity of the immune system
d） Application of GAS has been valuable in explaining psychosomatic
disorders
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
C。 Psychological Stress Reactions
1。 Major Life Events
a） Major changes in the life situation are the root cause of stress for many
individuals
（i） The Social Readjustment Rating scale （SRRS） rates degree of
adjustment required by life changes； both pleasant and
unpleasant； is measured in total number of life…change units
（ii） The life experience survey （LES） measures effects of life events
in a different manner than the SRRS
（a） Provides scores for both increases and decreases
（b） Scores reflect individual appraisals of events
（iii） Considerations for interpreting measurements of stressful life
events include：
（a） Tendency for studies to be retrospective； thus dependent on
recall
（b） Prospective studies finding significant correlations
between development of medical problems and earlier
accumulation of life stress units
2。 Catastrophic and Traumatic Events
a） Catastrophic events are particularly stressful due to uncontrollability；
unpredictability； and ambiguity
b） Posttraumatic stress disorder （PTSD）
（i） Delayed reaction to stress； that occurs repeatedly
（a） Emotional numbing to daily events
（b） Feel