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34 The Islamic injunction against alcohol is literally an injunction against the fermented fruit of the grape； i。e。； wine。 Fermented drinks of honey are specifically permitted to Muslims。
35 The usual psychiatric explanation for such fears of loss of body parts is that they represent castration anxiety。 In a 1937 review； Deformations of Body Image in Primitive Societies； Engelhardt observes that many cultures are explicit about this belief。 For example； the Nanamani of Brazil punish sexual offenders by cutting off the left ear； this is thought to reduce sexual potency。 Other societies attach significance to the loss of fingers； toes； or； in the case of the Northmen； the nose。 It is a mon superstition in many societies that the size of a man's nose reflects the size of his penis。
Emerson argues that the importance accorded the nose by primitive societies reflects a vestigial attitude from the days when men were hunters and relied heavily upon a sense of smell to find game and avoid enemies； in such a life； the loss of smell was a serious injury indeed。
36 In the Mediterranean； from Egyptian times； dwarves were thought especially intelligent and trustworthy； and tasks of bookkeeping and money…handling were reserved to them。
37 Of approximately ninety skeletons that can be confidently ascribed to the Viking period in Scandinavia； the average height appears to be about 170 centimeters （5'7〃）。
38 Dahlmann （1924） writes that 〃for ceremonial occasions the ram was eaten to increase potency； since the horned male animal was judged superior to the female。〃 In fact； during this period both rams and ewes had horns。
39 Joseph Cantrell observes that 〃there is a strain in Germanic and Norse mythology which holds that women have special powers； qualities of magic； and should be feared and mistrusted by men。 The principal gods are all men； but the Valkyries； which means literally 'choosers of the slain；' are women who transport dead warriors to Paradise。 It was believed that there were three Valkyries； as there were three Norns； or Fates； which were present at the birth of every man； and determined the oute of his life。 The Norns were named Urth； the past； Verthandi； the present； and Skuld； the future。 The Norns 'wove' a man's fate； and weaving was a woman's work； in popular representations they were shown as young maidens。 Wyrd； an Anglo…Saxon deity which ruled fate； was also a goddess。 Presumably the association of women with man's fate was a permutation of earlier concepts of women as fertility symbols； the goddesses of fertility controlled the growing and flowering of crops and living things on the earth。〃
Cantrell also notes that 〃in practice； we know that divination； spellcasting； and other shamanistic functions were reserved to elderly women in Norse society。 Furthermore； popular ideas of women contained a heavy element of suspicion。 According to the Harvamal； 'No one should trust the words of a girl or a married woman； for their hearts have been shaped on a turning wheel and they are inconstant by nature。' 〃
Bendixon says； 〃Among the early Scandinavians there was a kind of division of power according to sex。 Men ruled physical affairs； women； psychological matters。〃
40 This is a paraphrase of a sentiment among the Northmen； expressed fully as： 〃Praise not the day until evening has e； a woman until she is burnt； a sword until it is tried； a maiden until she is married； ice until it has been crossed； beer until it has been drunk。〃 This prudent； realistic； and somewhat cynical view of human nature and the world was something the Scandinavians and the Arabs shared。 And like the Scandinavians； the Arabs often express it in mundane or satiric terms。 There is a Sufi story about a man who asked a sage： 〃Suppose I am traveling in the countryside and must make ablutions in the stream。 Which direction do I face while performing the ritual？〃 To this the sage replies： 〃In the direction of your clothes； so they won't be stolen。〃
41 In the Faeroe Islands of Denmark； a similar method of scaling cliffs is still practiced to gather bird eggs； an important source of food to the islanders。
42 This description of the physical features of the wendol has sparked a predictable debate。 See Appendix。
43 Lectulus。
44 Fenestra porcus： literally； 〃pig window。〃 The Norsemen used stretched membranes instead of glass to cover narrow windows； these membranes were translucent。 One could not see much through them； but light would be admitted into houses。
45 This section of the manuscript is pieced together from the manuscript of Razi； whose chief interest was military techniques。 Whether or not Ibn Fadlan knew； or recorded； the significance of Buliwyf's reappearance is unknown。 Certainly Razi did not include it； although the significance is obvious enough。 In Norse mythology； Odin is popularly represented as bearing a raven on each shoulder。 These birds bring him all the news of the world。 Odin was the principal deity of the Norse pantheon and was considered the Universal Father。 He ruled especially in matters of warfare； it was believed that from time to time he would appear among men； although rarely in his godlike form； preferring to assume the appearance of a simple traveler。 It was said that an enemy would be scared away simply by his presence。
Interestingly； there is a story about Odin in which he is killed and resurrected after nine days； most authorities believe this idea antedates any Christian influence。 In any case； the resurrected Odin was still mortal； and it was believed that he would someday finally die。
46 The classic popular account of Evans and Schliemann is C。 W。 Ceram （Kurt W。 Marek）； Gods； Graves； and Scholars； Alfred A。 Knopf； New York； 1967。
47 M。 I。 Finley； The World of Odysseus； Viking Press； New York； 1965。
48 Lionel Casson； The Ancient Mariners； Sea Farers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times； Macmillan； New York； 1959。
49 Among the many discussions of Viking society for the general reader； see： D。 M。 Wilson； The Vikings； London； 1970； J。 Brondsted； The Vikings； London； 1965； P。 Sawyer； The Age of the Vikings； London； 1962； P。 G。 Foote and D。 M。 Wilson； The Viking Achievement； London； 1970。 Some of these references quote passages from Ibn Fadlan's manuscript。
50 To my knowledge there are still only two principal sources in English。 The first is the text fragments I read as an undergraduate： Robert Blake and Richard Frye； 〃The Vikings Abroad and at Home；〃 in Carleton S。 Coon； A Reader in General Anthropology； Henry Holt and Co。； New York； 1952； pp。 410…416。 The second source is Robert P。 Blake and Richard N。 Frye； 〃Notes on the Risala of Ibn…Fadlan；〃 Byzantina Metabyzantina； 1949； v。1 part 2； New York； pp。 7…37。 I am grateful to Professor Frye for his assistance during the first publication of this book； and this recent revision。
51 For trends in post…modern academic thought； see； for example； Pauline Marie Rosenau； Post…Modernism and the Social Sciences： Insights； Inroads； and Intrusions； Princeton； New Jersey； 1992； and H。 Aram Veser； ed。； The New Historicism； Routledge； New York； 1989。
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