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are accustomed to hearing one。 We tend to forget that our own sense of drama originates in an oral tradition…a live performance by a bard before an audience that must often have been restless and impatient； or else sleepy after a heavy meal。 Our oldest stories； the Iliad； Beowulf； the Song of Roland； were all intended to be sung by singers whose chief function and first obligation was entertainment。
But Ibn Fadlan was a writer； and his principal aim was not entertainment。 Nor was it to glorify some listening patron； or to reinforce the myths of the society in which he lived。 On the contrary； he was an ambassador delivering a report； his tone is that of a tax auditor； not a bard； an anthropologist； not a dramatist。 Indeed； he often slights the most exciting elements of his narrative rather than let them interfere with his clear and level…headed account。
At times this dispassion is so irritating we fail to recognize how extraordinary a spectator he really is。 For hundreds of years after Ibn Fadlan； the tradition among travelers was to write wildly speculative； fanciful chronicles of foreign marvels…talking animals； feathered men who flew； encounters with behemoths and unicorns。 As recently as two hundred years ago； otherwise sober Europeans were filling their journals with nonsense about African baboons that waged war with farmers； and so on。
Ibn Fadlan never speculates。 Every word rings true； and whenever he reports by hearsay； he is careful to say so。 He is equally careful to specify when he is an eyewitness： that is why he uses the phrase 〃I saw with my own eyes〃 over and over。
In the end； it is this quality of absolute truthfulness which makes his tale so horrifying。 For his encounter with the monsters of the mist； the 〃eaters of the dead；〃 is told with the same attention to detail； the same careful skepticism； that marks the other portions of the manuscript。
In any case； the reader may judge for himself。
THE DEPARTURE FROM THE CITY OF PEACE
PRAISE BE TO GOD； THE MERCIFUL； THE passionate； the Lord of the Two Worlds； and blessing and peace upon the Prince of Prophets； our Lord and Master Muhammad； whom God bless and preserve with abiding and continuing peace and blessings until the Day of the Faith！
This is the book of Ahmad ibn…Fadlan； ibnal…Abbas； ibn…Rasid； ibn…Hammad； a client of Muhammad ibn…Sulayman； the ambassador from al…Muqtadir to the King of the Saqaliba； in which he recounts what he saw in the land of the Turks； the Hazars； the Saqaliba； the Baskirs； the Rus； and the Northmen； of the histories of their kings and the way they act in many affairs of their life。
The letter of the Yiltawar； King of the Saqaliba； reached the mander of the Faithful； al…Muqtadir。 He asked him therein to send someone who would instruct him in religion and make him acquainted with the laws of Islam； who would build for him a mosque and erect for him a pulpit from which might be carried out the mission of converting his people in all the districts of his kingdom； and also for advice in the construction of fortifications and defense works。 And he prayed the Caliph to do these things。 The intermediary in this matter was Dadir al…Hurami。
The mander of the Faithful； al…Muqtadir； as many know； was not a strong and just caliph； but drawn to pleasures and the flattering speeches of his officers； who played him the fool and jested mightily behind his back。 I was not of this pany； or especially beloved of the Caliph； for the reason that follows。
In the City of Peace lived an elderly merchant of the name ibn…Qarin； rich in all things but lacking a generous heart and a love of man。 He hoarded his gold and likewise his young wife； whom none had ever seen but all bespoke as beautiful beyond imagining。 On a certain day； the Caliph sent me to deliver to ibn…Qarin a message； and I presented myself to the house of the merchant and sought entrance therein with my letter and seal。 Until today； I do not know the import of the letter； but it does not matter。
The merchant was not at home； being abroad on some business； I explained to the door servant that I must await his return； since the Caliph had instructed I must deliver the message into his hands from mine only。 Thus the door servant admitted me into the house； which procedure took some passing of time； for the door to the house had many bolts； locks； bars； and fasteners； as is mon in the dwellings of misers。 At length I was admitted and I waited all day； growing hungry and thirsty； but was offered no refreshments by the servants of the niggardly merchant。
In the heat of the afternoon； when all about me the house was still and the servants slept； I； too； felt drowsy。 Then before me I saw an apparition in white； a woman young and beautiful； whom I took to be the very wife no man had ever seen。 She did not speak； but with gestures led me to another room； and there locked the door。 I enjoyed her upon the spot； in which matter she required no encouragement； for her husband was old and no doubt neglectful。 Thus did the afternoon pass quickly； until we heard the master of the house making his return。 Immediately the wife arose and departed； having never uttered a word in my presence； and I was left to arrange my garments in some haste。
Now I should have been apprehended for certain were it not for these same many locks and bolts which impeded the miser's entry into his own home。 Even so； the merchant ibn…Qarin found me in the adjoining room； and he viewed me with suspicion； asking why I should be there and not in the courtyard； where it was proper for a messenger to wait。 I replied that I was famished and faint； and had searched for food and shade。 This was a poor lie and he did not believe it； he plained to the Caliph； who I know was amused in private and yet pelled to adopt a stern face to the public。 Thus when the ruler of the Saqaliba asked for a mission from the Caliph； this same spiteful ibn…Qarin urged I be sent； and so I was。
In our pany there was the ambassador of the King of Saqaliba who was called Abdallah ibn…Bastu al…Hazari； a tedious and windy man who talked overmuch。 There was also Takin al…Turki； Bars al…Saqlabi； both guides on the journey； and I； too。 We bore gifts for the ruler； for his wife； his children； and his generals。 Also we brought certain drugs； which were given over to the care of Sausan al…Rasi。 This was our parry。
So we started on Thursday； the 11th of Safar of the year 309 ＇June 21； 921＇； from the City of Peace ＇Bagdad＇。 We stopped a day in Nahrawan； and from there went swiftly until we reached al…Daskara； where we stopped for three days。 Then we traveled straight onward without any detours until we reached Hulwan。 There we stayed two days。 From there we went to Qirmisin； where we remained two days。 Then we started and traveled until we reached Hamadan； where we remained three days。 Then we went farther to Sawa； where we remained two days。 From there we came to Ray； where we remained eleven days waiting for Ahmad ibn…Ali； the brother of al…Rasi； because he was in Huwar al…Ray。 Then we went to Huwar al…Ray and remained there three days。
This passage gives the flavor of Ibn Fadlan's descriptions of travel。 Perhaps a quarter of