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tually having to explain it。 The munication seemed to be transmitted from unconscious mind to unconscious mind without the higher mental faculties catching a whiff of what was going on。
My colleagues today—struggling for every space science dollar—may have forgotten how easy it was to get money for 〃space〃 in the glory days of Apollo and just before。 Of many examples； consider this exchange before the Defense Appropriations Submittee of the House of Representatives in 1958； only a few months after Sputnik 1。 Air Force Assistant Secretary Richard E。 Horner is testifying； his interlocutor is Rep。 Daniel J。 Flood （Democrat of Pennsylvania）：
HORNER： ＇W＇hy is it desirable from the military point of view to have a man on the moon？ Partly； from the classic point of view； because it is there。 Partly because we might be afraid that the U。S。S。R。 might get one there first and realize advantages which we had not anticipated existed there 。 。 。
FLOOD： ＇I＇f we gave you all the money you said was necessary； regardless of how much it was； can you in the Air Force hit the moon with something； anything； before Christmas？
HORNER： I feel sure we can。 There is always a certain amount of risk in this kind of undertaking； but we feel that we can do that； yes； sir。
FLOOD： Have you asked anybody in the Air Force or the Department of Defense to give you enough money；
hardware； and people； starting at midnight tonight； to chip a。 piece out of that ball of green cheese for a Christmas present to Uncle Sam？ Have you asked for that？
HORNER： We have submitted such a program to the Office of the Secretary of Defense。 It is currently under consideration。
FLOOD： I am for giving it to them as of this minute； Mr。 Chairman； with our supplemental； without waiting for somebody downtown to make up his mind to ask for it。 If this man means what he says and if he knows what he is talking about—and I think he does—then this mittee should not wait five minutes more today。 We should give him all the money and all the hardware and all the people he wants； regardless of what anybody else says or wants； and tell him to go up on top of some hill and do it without any question。
When President Kennedy formulated the Apollo program； the Defense Department had a slew of space projects under development—ways of carrying military personnel up into space； means of conveying them around the Earth； robot weapons on orbiting platforms intended to shoot down satellites and ballistic missiles of other nations。 Apollo supplanted these programs。 They never reached operational status。 A case can be made then that Apollo served another purpose—to move the U。S。—Soviet space petition from a military to a civilian arena。 There are some who believe that Kennedy intended Apollo as a substitute for an anus race in space。 Maybe。
For me； the most ironic token of that moment in history is the plaque signed by President Richard M。 Nixon that Apollo 11 took to the Moon。 It reads： 〃We came in peace for all mankind。〃 As the United States was dropping 7？ megatons of conventional explosives on small nations in Southeast Asia； we congratulated ourselves on our humanity： We would harm no one on a lifeless rock。 That plaque is there still； attached to the base of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module； on the airless desolation of the Sea of Tranquility。 If no one disturbs it； it will still be readable a million years from now。
Six more missions followed Apollo 11； all but one of which successfully landed on the lunar surface。 Apollo 17 was the first to carry a scientist。 As soon as he got there； the program was canceled。 The first scientist and the last human to land on the Moon were the same person。 The program had already served its purpose that July night in 1969。 The half…dozen subsequent missions were just momentum。
Apollo was not mainly about science。 It was not even mainly about space。 Apollo was about ideological confrontation and nuclear war—often described by such euphemisms as world 〃leadership〃 and national 〃prestige。〃 Nevertheless； good space science was done。 We now know much more about the position； age； and history of the Moon and the origin of the lunar landforms。 We have made progress in understanding where the Moon came from。 Some of us have used lunar cratering statistics to better understand the Earth at the time of the origin of life。 But more important than any of this； Apollo provided an aegis； an umbrella under which brilliantly engineered robot spacecraft were dispatched throughout the Solar System； making that preliminary reconnaissance of dozens of worlds。 The offspring of Apollo have now reached the planetary frontiers。
If not for Apollo—and； therefore； if not for the political purpose it served—I doubt whether the historic American expeditions of exploration and discovery throughout the Solar System would have occurred； The Mariners； Vikings； Pioneers； Voyagers ；and Galileo are among the gifts of Apollo。 Magellan and Cassini are more distant descendants。 Something similar is true for the pioneering Soviet efforts in Solar System exploration； including the first soft landings of robot spacecraft—Luna 9； Mars 3； Venera 8…on other worlds。
Apollo conveyed a confidence； energy； and breadth of vision that did capture the imagination of the world。 That too was part of its purpose。 It inspired an optimism about technology； an enthusiasm for the future。 If we could fly to the Moon； as so many have asked； what else were we capable of？ Even those who opposed the policies and actions of the United States—even those who thought the worst of us—acknowledged the genius and heroism of the Apollo program。 With Apollo； the United States touched greatness。
When you pack your bags for a big trip； you never know what's in store for you。 The Apollo astronauts on their way to and from the Moon photographed their home planet。 It was a natural thing to do； but it had consequences that few foresaw。 For the first time； the inhabitants of Earth could see their world from above—the whole Earth； the Earth in color； the Earth as an exquisite spinning white and blue ball set against the vast darkness of space。 Those images helped awaken our slumbering planetary consciousness。 They provide incontestable evidence that we all share the same vulnerable planet。 They remind us of what is important and what is not。 They were the harbingers of Voyager's pale blue dot。
We may have found that perspective just in time； just as our technology threatens the habitability of our world。 Whatever the reason we first mustered the Apollo program； however mired it was in Cold War nationalism and the instruments of death； the inescapable recognition of the unity and fragility of the Earth is its clear and luminous dividend； the unexpected final gift of Apollo。 What began in deadly petition has helped us to see that global cooperation is the essential precondition for of survival。
Travel is broadening。
It's time to hit the road again。
CHAPTER 14 EXPLORING OTHER WORLDS AND PROTECTING THIS ONE
The planets； in their various stages of development； are subjected to the same formative forces that operate on our earth； and have； therefore； the same geologic for