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er caravans went from Europe to Asia Minor and touched at the cities south of the Caspian Sea； and lastly there were others from Bagdad through Arabia to Egypt； the maritime communication on the Red Sea to Arabia and Egypt was also not inconsiderable。 In all these directions contagion found its way； though doubtless Constantinople and the harbors of Asia Minor were the chief foci of infection； whence it radiated to the most distant seaports and islands。 As early as 1347 the Mediterranean shores were visited by the plague； and in January； 1348； it appeared in the south of France； the north of Italy； and also in Spain。 Place after place was attacked throughout the year； and after ravishing the whole of France and Germany； the plague appeared in England； a period of three months elapsing before it reached London。 The northern kingdoms were attacked in 1349； but in Russia it did not make its appearance before 1351。
As to the mortality of this fearful epidemic Dupony considers that in the space of four years more than 75；000；000 fell victims； that is； about half of the population of the countries visited。 Hecker estimates that from 1347 to 1351； 25；000；000 people died； or one…quarter of the total population of Europe。 It was reported to Pope Clement that throughout the East； probably with the exception of China； nearly 24；000；000 people had fallen victims to the plague。 Thirteen millions are said to have died in China alone。 Constantinople lost two…thirds of its population。 When the plague was at its greatest violence Cairo lost daily from 10；000 to 15；000； as many as modern plagues have carried off during their whole course。 India was depopulated。 Tartary； Mesopotamia； Syria； Armenia； and Arabia were covered with dead bodies。 In this latter country Arabian historians mention that Maara el nooman； Schisur； and Harem in some unaccountable manner remained free。 The shores of the Mediterranean were ravaged and ships were seen on the high seas without sailors。 In 〃The Decameron〃 Boccaccio gives a most graphic description of the plague and states that in Florence； in four months； 100；000 perished； before the calamity it was hardly supposed to contain so many inhabitants。 According to Hecker； Venice lost 100；000； London； 100；000； Paris； 50；000； Siena； 70；000； Avignon； 60；000； Strasburg； 16；000； Norwich； 51；100。 Dupony says that in one month there were 56；000 victims in Marseilles； and at Montpellier three…quarters of the population and all the physicians were stricken with the epidemic。
Johanna of Burgundy； wife of King Philip VI of Valois； Johanna II； Queen of Navarre； granddaughter of Philippe le Bel； Alphonse XI of Castile； and other notable persons perished。 All the cities of England suffered incredible losses。 Germany seems to have been particularly spared； according to a probable calculation； only about 1；250；000 dying。 Italy was most severely visited； and was said to have lost most of its inhabitants。 In the north of Europe two of the brothers of Magnus； King of Sweden； died； and in Westgothland alone 466 priests died。 The plague showed no decrease in the northern climates of Iceland and Greenland； and caused great havoc in those countries。
The moral effect of such a great pandemic plague can be readily surmised。 The mental shock sustained by all nations during the prevalence of the black plague is beyond parallel and description。 An awful sense of contrition and repentance seized Christians of every community。 They resolved to forsake their vices； and to make restitution for past offenses； hence extreme religious fanaticism held full sway throughout Europe。 The zeal of the penitents stopped at nothing。 The so…called Brotherhood of the Cross； otherwise known as the Order of Flagellants； which had arisen in the thirteenth century； but was suppressed by the mandates and strenuous efforts of the Church； was revived during the plague； and numbers of these advocates of self…chastisement roamed through the various countries on their great pilgrimages。 Their power increased to such an extent that the Church was in considerable danger； for these religious enthusiasts gained more credit among the people； and operated more strongly on their minds than the priests from whom they so entirely withdrew that they even absolved each other。 Their strength grew with such rapidity； and their numbers increased to such an extent daily； that the State and the Church were forced to combine for their suppression。 Degeneracy； however； soon crept in； crimes were committed； and they went beyond their strength in attempting the performance of miracles。 One of the most fearful consequences of this frenzy was the persecution of the Jews。 This alien race was given up to the merciless fury and cruelty of the populace。 The persecution of the Jews commenced in September and October； 1348； at Chillon on Lake Geneva； where criminal proceedings were instituted against them on the mythic charge of poisoning the public wells。 These persecuted people were summoned before sanguinary tribunals； beheaded and burned in the most fearful manner。 At Strasburg 2000 Jews were burned alive in their own burial…ground； where a large scaffold had been erected； their wealth being divided among the people。 In Mayence 12；000 Jews were said to have been put to a cruel death。 At Eslingen the whole Jewish community burned themselves in their synagogue； and mothers were often seen throwing their children on the pile； to prevent them from being baptized； and then precipitating themselves into the flames。 The cruel and avaricious desires of the monarchs against these thrifty and industrious people added fuel to the flames of the popular passion； and even a fanatic zeal arose among the Jews to perish as martyrs to their ancient religion。 When we sum up the actual effects as well as the after effects of the black death； we are appalled at the magnitude of such a calamity； the like of which the world had never seen before。
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the plague was generally diffused throughout Europe； and in the latter half of the seventeenth century a final Occidental incursion of the plague took place。 From 1603 to 1604 over 30；000 people perished in London from the plague； and in 1625 the mortality in that city amounted to 35；417 persons。 But the great plague of London did not begin until 1664。 In this plague the patient at first became sensible of great weariness and fatigue； had slight chills； nausea； vomiting； vertigo； and pains in the loins。 The mental disturbance rapidly increased； and stupor and delirium ensued。 The face was alternately flushed and pallid； and a sense of constriction was experienced in the region of the heart。 Darting pains were felt all over the body； soon followed by the enlargement of the lymphatic glands； or by the formation of carbuncles in various parts of the body。 About the third day the tongue became dry and brown； and the gums； tongue； and teeth were covered with a dark fur； and the excretions became offensive； paralysis intervened； ecchymosed patches or stripes due to extravasation appeared on the skin； finally the pulse sank； the body grew cold and clammy； delirium or coma seized the victim； and in five or six days； sometimes in two or