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newborn spiritual force； found its chief work in the recovery of what had been lost。 It only existed and is only intelligible in opposition to the seceders。 In this sense it can be said with perfect truth that the moral salvation of the Papacy is due to its mortal enemies。 And now its political position； too； though certainly under the permanent tutelage of Spain； became impregnable； almost without effort it inherited； on the extinction of its vassals； the legitimate line of Este and the house of Della Rovere； the duchies of Ferrara and Urbino。 But without the Reformationif； indeed； it is possible to think it awaythe whole ecclesiastical State would long ago have passed into secular hands。
Patriotism
In conclusion； let us briefly consider the effect of these political circumstances on the spirit of the nation at large。
It is evident that the general political uncertainty in Italy； during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries； was of a kind to excite in the better spirits of the time a patriotic disgust and opposition。 Dante and Petrarch； in their day； proclaimed loudly a common Italy； the object of the highest efforts of all her children。 It may be objected that this was only the enthusiasm of a few highly instructed men； in which the mass of the people had no share； but it can hardly have been otherwise even in Germany； although in name at least that country was united； and recognized in the Emperor one supreme head。 The first patriotic utterances of German literature； if we except some verses of the 'Minnesanger；' belong to the humanists of the time of Maximilian I and after； and read like an echo of Italian declamations。 And yet； as a matter of fact； Germany had been long a nation in a truer sense than Italy ever was since the Roman days。 France owes the consciousness of its national unity mainly to its conflicts with the English； and Spain has never permanently succeeded in absorbing Portugal； closely related as the two countries are。 For Italy； the existence of the ecclesiastical State； and the conditions under which alone it could continue； were a permanent obstacle to national unity； an obstacle whose removal seemed hopeless。 When； therefore； in the political intercourse of the fifteenth century； the common fatherland is sometimes emphatically named； it is done in most cases to annoy some other Italian State。 But those deeply serious and sorrowful appeals to national sentiment were not heard again till later； when the time for unity had gone by； when the country was inundated with Frenchmen and Spaniards。 The sense of local patriotism may be said in some measure to have taken the place of this feeling； though it was but a poor equivalent for it。
Part Two
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Personality
In the character of these States； whether republics or despotisms； lies； not the only； but the chief reason for the early development of the Italian。 To this it is due that he was the firstborn among the sons of modern Europe。
In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousnessthat which was turned within as that which was turned without lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil。 The veil was woven of faith； illusion； and childish prepossession； through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues。 Man was conscious of himself only as a member of a race； people； party； family； or corporationonly through some general category。 In Italy this veil first melted into air； an _objective _treatment and consideration of the State and of all the things of this world became possible。 The subjective side at the same time asserted itself with corresponding emphasis； man became a spiritual _individual； _recognized himself as such。 In the same way the Greek had once distinguished himself from the barbarian； and the Arab had felt himself an individual at a time when other Asiatics knew themselves only as members of a race。 It will not be difficult to show that this result was due above all to the political circumstances of Italy。
In far earlier times we can here and there detect a development of free personality which in Northern Europe either did not occur at all； or could not display itself in the same manner。 The band of audacious wrongdoers in the tenth century described to us by Liudprand； some of the contemporaries of Gregory VII （for example； Benzo of Alba）； and a few of the opponents of the first Hohenstaufen； show us characters of this kind。 But at the close of the thirteenth century Italy began to swarm with individuality； the ban laid upon human personality was dissolved； and a thousand figures meet us each in its own special shape and dress。 Dante's great poem would have been impossible in any other country of Europe； if only for the reason that they all still lay under the spell of race。 For Italy the august poet； through the wealth of individuality which he set forth； was the most national herald of his time。 But this unfolding of the treasures of human nature in literature and artthis many…sided representation and criticismwill be discussed in separate chapters； here we have to deal only with the psychological fact itself。 This fact appears in the most decisive and unmistakable form。 The Italians of the fourteenth century knew little of false modesty or of hypocrisy in any shape； not one of them was afraid of singularity； of being and seeming unlike his neighbors。
Despotism； as we have already seen； fostered in the highest degree the individuality not only of the tyrant or Condottiere himself； but also of the men whom he protected or used as his toolsthe secretary； minister； poet； and companion。 These people were forced to know all the inward resources of their own nature； passing or permanent； and their enjoyment of life was enhanced and concentrated by the desire to obtain the greatest satisfaction from a possibly very brief period of power and influence。
But even the subjects whom they ruled over were not free from the same impulse。 Leaving out of account those who wasted their lives in secret opposition and conspiracies； we speak of the majority who were content with a strictly private station； like most of the urban population of the Byzantine empire and the Mohammedan States。 No doubt it was often hard for the subjects of a Visconti to maintain the dignity of their persons and families； and multitudes must have lost in moral character through the servitude they lived under。 But this was not the case with regard to individuality； for political impotence does not hinder the different tendencies and manifestations of private life from thriving in the fullest vigor and variety。 Wealth and culture； so far as display and rivalry were not forbidden to them； a municipal freedom which did not cease to be considerable； and a Church which； unlike that of the Byzantine or of the Mohammedan world； was not identical with the State… …all these conditions undoubtedly favored the growth of individual thought； for which the necessary leisure was furnished by the cessation of party conflicts。 The private man； indifferent to politics； and busied partly with serious pursuits； partly with t