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their whole hearts and minds。 They tried to teach agriculture by
schools and pamphlets and prizes； they sent out plans for every
public work。 A town could not establish an octroi； levy a rate；
mortgage； sell； sue； farm； or administer their property； without an
order in council。 The Government ordered public rejoicings； saw to
the firing of salutes； and illuminating of housesin one case
mentioned by M。 de Tocqueville； they fined a member of the burgher
guard for absenting himself from a Te Deum。 All self…government was
gone。 A country parish was； says Turgot； nothing but 〃an assemblage
of cabins； and of inhabitants as passive as the cabins they dwelt
in。〃 Without an order of council； the parish could not mend the
steeple after a storm； or repair the parsonage gable。 If they
grumbled at the intendant； he threw some of the chief persons into
prison； and made the parish pay the expenses of the horse patrol；
which formed the arbitrary police of France。 Everywhere was
meddling。 There were reports on statisticscircumstantial；
inaccurate； and uselessas statistics are too often wont to be。
Sometimes； when the people were starving； the Government sent down
charitable donations to certain parishes； on condition that the
inhabitants should raise a sum on their part。 When the sum offered
was sufficient； the Comptroller…General wrote on the margin； when he
returned the report to the intendant； 〃Goodexpress satisfaction。〃
If it was more than sufficient； he wrote； 〃Goodexpress
satisfaction and sensibility。〃 There is nothing new under the sun。
In 1761； the Government； jealous enough of newspapers； determined to
start one for itself； and for that purpose took under its tutelage
the Gazette de France。 So the public newsmongers were of course to
be the provincial intendants； and their sub…newsmongers； of course；
the sub…delegates。
But alas！ the poor sub…delegates seem to have found either very
little news； or very little which it was politic to publish。 One
reports that a smuggler of salt has been hung； and has displayed
great courage； another that a woman in his district has had three
girls at a birth； another that a dreadful storm has happened； but
has done no mischief； a fourthliving in some specially favoured
Utopiadeclares that in spite of all his efforts he has found
nothing worth recording； but that he himself will subscribe to so
useful a journal； and will exhort all respectable persons to follow
his example： in spite of which loyal endeavours； the journal seems
to have proved a failure； to the great disgust of the king and his
minister； who had of course expected to secure fine weather by
nailing； like the schoolboy before a holiday； the hand of the
weather…glass。
Well had it been； if the intermeddling of this bureaucracy had
stopped there。 But； by a process of evocation （as it was called）；
more and more causes； criminal as well as civil； were withdrawn from
the regular tribunals； to those of the intendants and the Council。
Before the intendant all the lower order of people were generally
sent for trial。 Bread…riots were a common cause of such trials； and
M。 de Tocqueville asserts that he has found sentences； delivered by
the intendant； and a local council chosen by himself； by which men
were condemned to the galleys； and even to death。 Under such a
system； under which an intendant must have felt it his interest to
pretend at all risks； that all was going right； and to regard any
disturbance as a dangerous exposure of himself and his chiefsone
can understand easily enough that scene which Mr。 Carlyle has
dramatised from Lacretelle； concerning the canaille； the masses； as
we used to call them a generation since：
〃A dumb generationtheir voice only an inarticulate cry。
Spokesman； in the king's council； in the world's forum； they have
none that finds credence。 At rare intervals （as now； in 1775） they
will fling down their hoes； and hammers； and； to the astonishment of
mankind； flock hither and thither； dangerous； aimless； get the
length even of Versailles。 Turgot is altering the corn trade；
abrogating the absurdest corn laws； there is dearth； real； or were
it even factitious； an indubitable scarcity of broad。 And so； on
the 2nd day of May； 1775； these waste multitudes do here； at
Versailles chateau； in widespread wretchedness； in sallow faces；
squalor； winged raggedness； present as in legible hieroglyphic
writing their petition of grievances。 The chateau…gates must be
shut； but the king will appear on the balcony and speak to them。
They have seen the king's face； their petition of grievances has
been； if not read； looked at。 In answer； two of them are hanged； on
a new gallows forty feet high； and the rest driven back to their
dens for a time。〃
Of course。 What more exasperating and inexpiable insult to the
ruling powers was possible than this？ To persist in being needy and
wretched； when a whole bureaucracy is toiling day and night to make
them prosperous and happy？ An insult only to be avenged in blood。
Remark meanwhile； that this centralised bureaucracy was a failure；
that after all the trouble taken to govern these masses； they were
not governed； in the sense of being made better； and not worse。 The
truth is； that no centralised bureaucracy； or so…called 〃paternal
government；〃 yet invented on earth； has been anything but a failure；
or is it like to be anything else： because it is founded on an
error； because it regards and treats men as that which they are not；
as things； and not as that which they are； as persons。 If the
bureaucracy were a mere Briareus giant； with a hundred hands；
helping the weak throughout the length and breadth of the empire；
the system might be at least tolerable。 But what if the Government
were not a Briareus with a hundred hands； but a Hydra with a hundred
heads and mouths； each far more intent on helping itself than on
helping the people？ What if sub…delegates and other officials；
holding office at the will of the intendant； had to live； and even
provide against a rainy day？ What if intendants； holding office at
the will of the Comptroller…General； had to do more than live； and
found it prudent to realise as large a fortune as possible； not only
against disgrace； but against success； and the dignity fit for a new
member of the Noblesse de la Robe？ Would not the system； then； soon
become intolerable？ Would there not be evil times for the masses；
till they became something more than masses？
It is an ugly name； that of 〃The Masses；〃 for the great majority of
human beings in a nation。 He who uses it speaks of them not as
human beings； but as things； and as things not bound together in one
living body； but lying in a fortuitous heap。 A swarm of ants is not
a mass。 It has a polity and a unity。 Not the ants but the fir…
needles and sticks； of which the ants have piled their nest； are a
mass。
The term； I believe； was invented during the Ancien Re