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Now； this imperceptible usurpation of property by the commonalty was inspired by religion。
The seignior had attached the serf to the soil； religion granted the serf rights over the soil。 The seignior imposed duties upon the serf； religion fixed their limits。 The seignior could kill the serf with impunity； could deprive him of his wife； violate his daughter； pillage his house； and rob him of his savings； religion checked his invasions： it excommunicated the seignior。 Religion was the real cause of the ruin of feudal property。 Why should it not be bold enough to…day to resolutely condemn capitalistic property？ Since the middle ages； there has been no change in social economy except in its forms； its relations remain unaltered。
The only result of the emancipation of the serfs was that property changed hands； or； rather； that new proprietors were created。 Sooner or later the extension of privilege； far from curing the evil； was to operate to the disadvantage of the plebeians。 Nevertheless； the new social organization did not meet with the same end in all places。 In Lombardy； for example； where the people rapidly growing rich through commerce and industry soon conquered the authorities； even to the exclusion of the nobles；first； the nobility became poor and degraded； and were forced； in order to live and maintain their credit； to gain admission to the guilds； then； the ordinary subalternization of property leading to inequality of fortunes； to wealth and poverty； to jealousies and hatreds； the cities passed rapidly from the rankest democracy under the yoke of a few ambitious leaders。 Such was the fate of most of the Lombardic cities； Genoa； Florence； Bologna； Milan； Pisa； &c；。which afterwards changed rulers frequently； but which have never since risen in favor of liberty。 The people can easily escape from the tyranny of despots； but they do not know how to throw off the effects of their own despotism； just as we avoid the assassin's steel； while we succumb to a constitutional malady。 As soon as a nation becomes proprietor； either it must perish； or a foreign invasion must force it again to begin its evolutionary round。＇1＇
＇1＇ The spirit of despotism and monopoly which animated the communes has not escaped the attention of historians。 〃The formation of the commoners' associations；〃 says Meyer； 〃did not spring from the true spirit of liberty； but from the desire for exemption from the charges of the seigniors； from individual interests； and jealousy of the welfare of others。 。 。 。 Each commune or corporation opposed the creation of every other； and this spirit increased to such an extent that the King of England； Henry V。； having established a university at Caen； in 1432； the city and university of Paris opposed the registration of the edict。
〃The communes once organized； the kings treated them as superior vassals。 Now； just as the under vassal had no communication with the king except through the direct vassal； so also the commoners could enter no complaints except through the commune。
〃Like causes produce like effects。 Each commune became a small and separate State； governed by a few citizens； who sought to extend their authority over the others； who； in their turn； revenged themselves upon the unfortunate inhabitants who had not the right of citizenship。 Feudalism in unemancipated countries； and oligarchy in the communes； made nearly the same ravages。 There were sub…associations； fraternities； tradesmen's associations in the communes； and colleges in the universities。 The oppression was so great； that it was no rare thing to see the inhabitants of a commune demanding its suppression。 。 。 。〃 Meyer： Judicial Institutions of Europe。
In France； the Revolution was much more gradual。 The communes； in taking refuge under the protection of the kings； had found them masters rather than protectors。 Their liberty had long since been lost； or； rather； their emancipation had been suspended； when feudalism received its death…blow at the hand of Richelieu。 Then liberty halted； the prince of the feudatories held sole and undivided sway。 The nobles； the clergy； the commoners； the parliaments； every thing in short except a few seeming privileges； were controlled by the king； who； like his early predecessors； consumed regularly； and nearly always in advance； the revenues of his domain；and that domain was France。
Finally； '89 arrived； liberty resumed its march； a century and a half had been required to wear out the last form of feudal property；monarchy。
The French Revolution may be defined as _the substitution of real right for personal right；_ that is to say； in the days of feudalism； the value of property depended upon the standing of the proprietor； while； after the Revolution； the regard for the man was proportional to his property。 Now； we have seen from what has been said in the preceding pages； that this recognition of the right of laborers had been the constant aim of the serfs and communes； the secret motive of their efforts。 The movement of '89 was only the last stage of that long insurrection。 But it seems to me that we have not paid sufficient attention to the fact that the Revolution of 1789； instigated by the same causes； animated by the same spirit； triumphing by the same struggles； was consummated in Italy four centuries ago。 Italy was the first to sound the signal of war against feudalism； France has followed； Spain and England are beginning to move； the rest still sleep。 If a grand example should be given to the world； the day of trial would be much abridged。
Note the following summary of the revolutions of property； from the days of the Roman Empire down to the present time：
1。 Fifth century。 Barbarian invasions； division of the lands of the empire into independent portions or freeholds。
2。 From the fifth to the eighth century。Gradual concentration of freeholds； or transformation of the small freeholds into fiefs； feuds； tenures； &c。 Large properties； small possessions。 Charlemagne （771…814） decrees that all freeholds are dependent upon the king of France。
3。 From the eighth to the tenth century。The relation between the crown and the superior dependents is broken； the latter becoming freeholders； while the smaller dependents cease to recognize the king； and adhere to the nearest suzerain。 Feudal system。
4。 Twelfth century。Movement of the serfs towards liberty； emancipation of the communes。
5。 Thirteenth century。Abolition of personal right； and of the feudal system in Italy。 Italian Republics。
6。 Seventeenth century。Abolition of feudalism in France during Richelieu's ministry。 Despotism。 7。 1789。Abolition of all privileges of birth； caste； provinces； and corporations； equality of persons and of rights。 French democracy。
8。 1830。The principle of concentration inherent in individual property is REMARKED。 Development of the idea of association。
The more we reflect upon this series of transformations and changes； the more clearly we see that they were necessary in their principle； in their manifestations； and in their result。
It was necessary that inexperienced conquerors； eager for liberty； should divide the Roman Empire into a multitude