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ments of expression directly or indirectly depend； it seems to me improbable in the highest degree that so much similarity； or rather identity of structure； could have been acquired by independent means。 Yet this must have been the case if the races of man are descended from several aboriginally distinct species。 It is far more probable that the many points of close similarity in the various races are due to inheritance from a single parent…form； which had already assumed a human character。
It is a curious； though perhaps an idle speculation； how early in the long line of our progenitors the various expressive movements； now exhibited by man； were successively acquired。 The following remarks will at least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in this volume。 We may confidently believe that laughter； as a sign of pleasure or enjoyment； was practised by our progenitors long before they deserved to be called human； for very many kinds of monkeys； when pleased； utter a reiterated sound； clearly analogous to our laughter； often accompanied by vibratory movements of their jaws or lips； with the corners of the mouth drawn backwards and upwards； by the wrinkling of the cheeks； and even by the brightening of the eyes。
We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote period； in almost the same manner as it now is by man； namely； by trembling； the erection of the hair； cold perspiration； pallor； widely opened eyes； the relaxation of most of the muscles； and by the whole body cowering downwards or held motionless。
Suffering； if great； will from the first have caused screams or groans to be uttered； the body to be contorted； and the teeth to be ground together。 But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expressive movements of the features which accompany screaming and crying until their circulatory and respiratory organs； and the muscles surrounding the eyes； had acquired their present structure。 The shedding of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids； together perhaps with the eyeballs becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming。 Therefore weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our descent； and this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest allies； the anthropomorphous apes； do not weep。 But we must here exercise some caution； for as certain monkeys； which are not closely related to man； weep； this habit might have been developed long ago in a sub…branch of the group from which man is derived。 Our early progenitors； when suffering from grief or anxiety； would not have made their eyebrows oblique； or have drawn down the corners of their mouth； until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their screams。 The expression； therefore； of grief and anxiety is eminently human。
Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or frantic gestures； by the reddening of the skin； and by glaring eyes； but not by frowning。 For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round the eyes； whenever during infancy pain； anger； or distress is felt； and there consequently is a near approach to screaming； and partly from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision。 It seems probable that this shading action would not have become habitual until man had assumed a completely upright position； for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a glaring light。 Our early progenitors； when enraged； would probably have exposed their teeth more freely than does man； even when giving full vent to his rage； as with the insane。 We may； also； feel almost certain that they would have protruded their lips； when sulky or disappointed； in a greater degree than is the case with our own children； or even with the children of existing savage races。
Our early progenitors； when indignant or moderately angry； would not have held their heads erect； opened their chests； squared their shoulders； and clenched their fists； until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man； and had learnt to fight with their fists or clubs。 Until this period had arrived the antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders； as a sign of impotence or of patience； would not have been developed。 From the same reason astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers。 Nor； judging from the actions of monkeys； would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened mouth； but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched。 Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round the mouth； like those of vomiting；that is； if the view which I have suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct； namely； that our progenitors had the power； and used it； of voluntarily and quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked。 But the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain； by lowering the eyelids； or turning away the eyes and face； as if the despised person were not worth looking at； would not probably have been acquired until a much later period。
Of all expressions； blushing seems to be the most strictly human； yet it is common to all or nearly all the races of man； whether or not any change of colour is visible in their skin。 The relaxation of the small arteries of the surface； on which blushing depends； seems to have primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of our own persons； especially of our faces； aided by habit； inheritance； and the ready flow of nerve…force along accustomed channels； and afterwards to have been extended by the power of association to self…attention directed to moral conduct。 It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms； as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex。 But it does not seem possible that any animal； until its mental powers had been developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man； would have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal appearance。 Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a very late period in the long line of our descent。
From the various facts just alluded to； and given in the course of this volume； it follows that； if the structure of our organs of respiration and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in which they now exist； most of our expressions would have been wonderfully different。 A very slight change in the course of the arteries and veins which run to the head； would probably have prevented the blood from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration； for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds。 In this case we should not have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions。 If man had breathed water by the aid of external branchiae （though the idea is hardly conceivable）； instead of air through his mouth and nostrils； his features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently th