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finished is no more than the repayment of the subsistence which
he advances to himself during the two years that he is employed
about it。 The value which； by every day's； month's； or year's
labour； he adds to the flax does no more than replace the value
of his own consumption during that day； month； or year。 At no
moment of time； therefore； does he add anything to the value of
the whole annual amount of the rude produce of the land： the
portion of that produce which he is continually consuming being
always equal to the value which he is continually producing。 The
extreme poverty of the greater part of the persons employed in
this expensive though trifling manufacture may satisfy us that
the price of their work does not in ordinary cases exceed the
value of their subsistence。 It is otherwise with the work of
farmers and country labourers。 The rent of the landlord is a
value which； in ordinary cases； it is continually producing； over
and above replacing； in the most complete manner； the whole
consumption； the whole expense laid out upon the employment and
maintenance both of the workmen and of their employer。
Artificers； manufacturers； and merchants can augment the
revenue and wealth of their society by parsimony only； or； as it
in this system； by privation； that is； by depriving themselves a
part of the funds destined for their own subsistence。 They
annually reproduce nothing but those funds。 Unless； therefore；
they annually save some part of them； unless they annually
deprive themselves of the enjoyment of some part of them； the
revenue and wealth of their society can never be in the smallest
degree augmented by means of their industry。 Farmers and country
labourers； on the contrary； may enjoy completely the whole funds
destined for their own subsistence； and yet augment at the same
time the revenue and wealth of their society。 Over and above what
is destined for their own subsistence； their industry annually
affords a net produce； of which the augmentation necessarily
augments the revenue and wealth of their society。 Nations
therefore which； like France or England； consist in a great
measure of proprietors and cultivators can be enriched by
industry and enjoyment。 Nations； on the contrary； which； like
Holland and Hamburg； are composed chiefly of merchants；
artificers； and manufacturers can grow rich only through
parsimony and privation。 As the interest of nations so
differently circumstanced is very different； so is likewise the
common character of the people： in those of the former kind；
liberality； frankness and good fellowship naturally make a part
of that common character： in the latter； narrowness； meanness；
and a selfish disposition； averse to all social pleasure and
enjoyment。
The unproductive class； that of merchants； artificers； and
manufacturers； is maintained and employed altogether at the
expense of the two other classes； of that of proprietors； and of
that of cultivators。 They furnish it both with the materials of
its work and with the fund of its subsistence； with the corn and
cattle which it consumes while it is employed about that work。
The proprietors and cultivators finally pay both the wages of all
the workmen of the unproductive class； and of the profits of all
their employers。 Those workmen and their employers are properly
the servants of the proprietors and cultivators。 They are only
servants who work without doors； as menial servants work within。
Both the one and the other； however； are equally maintained at
the expense of the same masters。 The labour of both is equally
unproductive。 It adds nothing to the value of the sum total of
the rude produce of the land。 Instead of increasing the value of
that sum total； it is a charge and expense which must be paid out
of it。
The unproductive class； however； is not only useful； but
greatly useful to the other two classes。 By means of the industry
of merchants； artificers； and manufacturers； the proprietors and
cultivators can purchase both the foreign goods and the
manufactured produce of their own country which they have
occasion for with the produce of a much smaller quantity of their
own labour than what they would be obliged to employ if they were
to attempt； in an awkward and unskilful manner； either to import
the one or to make the other for their own use。 By means of the
unproductive class； the cultivators are delivered from many cares
which would otherwise distract their attention from the
cultivation of land。 The superiority of produce； which； in
consequence of this undivided attention； they are enabled to
raise； is fully sufficient to pay the whole expense which the
maintenance and employment of the unproductive class costs either
the proprietors or themselves。 The industry of merchants；
artificers； and manufacturers； though in its own nature
altogether unproductive； yet contributes in this manner
indirectly to increase the produce of the land。 It increases the
productive powers of productive labour by leaving it at liberty
to confine itself to its proper employment； the cultivation of
land； and the plough goes frequently the easier and the better by
means of the labour of the man whose business is most remote from
the plough。
It can never be the interest of the proprietors and
cultivators to restrain or to discourage in any respect the
industry of merchants； artificers； and manufacturers。 The greater
the liberty which this unproductive class enjoys； the greater
will be the competition in all the different trades which compose
it； and the cheaper will the other two classes be supplied； both
with foreign goods and with the manufactured produce of their own
country。
It can never be the interest of the unproductive class to
oppress the other two classes。 It is the surplus produce of the
land； or what remains after deducting the maintenance； first； of
the cultivators； and afterwards of the proprietors； that
maintains and employs the unproductive class。 The greater this
surplus the greater must likewise be the maintenance and
employment of that class。 The establishment of perfect justice；
of perfect liberty； and of perfect equality is the very simple
secret which most effectually secures the highest degree of
prosperity to all the three classes。
The merchants； artificers； and manufacturers of those
mercantile states which； like Holland and Hamburg； consist
chiefly of this unproductive class； are in the same manner
maintained and employed altogether at the expense of the
proprietors and cultivators of land。 The only difference is； that
those proprietors and cultivators are； the greater part of them；
placed at a most inconvenient distance from the merchants；
artificers； and manufacturers whom they supply with the materials
of their work and the fund of their subsistences… the inhabitants
of other countries and the subjects of other governments。
Such mercantile states； however； are not only useful； but
greatly useful to the inhabitants of those other countries。 They
fill up； in some measure； a very imp