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other。
In the larger cities the citizens' tickets and fusion movements
are types of independent activities。 In some cities they are
merely temporary associations； formed for a single； thorough
housecleaning。 The Philadelphia Committee of One Hundred； which
was organized in 1880 to fight the Gas Ring； is an example。 It
issued a Declaration of Principles； demanding the promotion of
public service rather than private greed； and the prosecution of
〃those who have been guilty of election frauds； maladministration
of office； or misappropriation of public funds。〃 Announcing that
it would endorse only candidates who signed this declaration； the
committee supported the Democratic candidates； and nominated for
Receiver of Taxes a candidate of its own； who became also the
Democratic nominee when the regular Democratic candidate
withdrew。 Philadelphia was overwhelmingly Republican。 But the
committee's aid was powerful enough to elect the Democratic
candidate for mayor by 6000 majority and the independent
candidate for Receiver of Taxes by 20；000。 This gave the
Committee access to the records of the doings of the Gas Ring。 In
1884； however； the candidate which it endorsed was defeated； and
it disbanded。
Similar in experience was the famous New York Committee of
Seventy； organized in 1894 after Dr。 Parkhurst's lurid
disclosures of police connivance with every degrading vice。 A
call was issued by thirty…three well…known citizens for a
non…partizan mass meeting； and at this meeting a committee of
seventy was appointed 〃with full power to confer with other
anti…Tammany organizations； and to take such actions as may be
necessary to further the objects of this meeting as set forth in
the call therefor； and the address adopted by this meeting。〃 The
committee adopted a platform； appointed an executive and a
finance committee； and nominated a full ticket； distributing the
candidates among both parties。 All other anti…Tammany
organizations endorsed this ticket； and it was elected by large
majorities。 The committee dissolved after having secured certain
charter amendments for the city and seeing its roster of officers
inaugurated。
The Municipal Voters' League of Chicago is an important example
of the permanent type of citizens' organization。 The league is
composed of voters in every ward； who； acting through committees
and alert officers； scrutinize every candidate for city office
from the Mayor down。 It does not aim to nominate a ticket of its
own； but to exercise such vigilance； enforced by so effective an
organization and such wide…reaching publicity； that the various
parties will； of their own volition； nominate men whom the league
can endorse。 By thus putting on the hydraulic pressure of
organized public opinion； it has had a considerable influence on
the parties and a very stimulating effect on the citizenry。
Finally； there has developed in recent years the fusion movement；
whereby the opponents of boss rule in all parties unite and back
an independent or municipal ticket。 The election of Mayor Mitchel
of New York in 1913 was thus accomplished。 In Milwaukee； a fusion
has been successful against the Socialists。 And in many lesser
cities this has brought at least temporary relief from the
oppression of the local oligarchy。
CHAPTER XI。 THE EXPERT AT LAST
The administrative weakness of a democracy； namely； the tendency
towards a government by job…hunters； was disclosed even in the
early days of the United States； when the official machinery was
simple and the number of offices few。 Washington at once foresaw
both the difficulties and the duties that the appointing power
imposed。 Soon after his inauguration he wrote to Rutledge： 〃I
anticipate that one of the most difficult and delicate parts of
the duty of any office will be that which relates to nominations
for appointments。〃 And he was most scrupulous and painstaking in
his appointments。 Fitness for duty was paramount with him； though
he recognized geographical necessity and distributed the offices
with that precision which characterized all his acts。
John Adams made very few appointments。 After his term had
expired； he wrote： 〃Washington appointed a multitude of Democrats
and Jacobins of the deepest die。 I have been more cautious in
this respect。〃
The test of partizan loyalty； however； was not applied generally
until after the election of Jefferson。 The ludicrous
apprehensions of the Federalists as to what would follow upon his
election were not allayed by his declared intentions。 〃I have
given；〃 he wrote to Monroe； 〃and will give only to Republicans
under existing circumstances。〃 Jefferson was too good a
politician to overlook his opportunity to annihilate the
Federalists。 He hoped to absorb them in his own party； 〃to unite
the names of Federalists and Republicans。〃 Moderate Federalists；
who possessed sufficient gifts of grace for conversion； he
sedulously nursed。 But he removed all officers for whose removal
any special reason could be discovered。 The 〃midnight
appointments〃 of John Adams he refused to acknowledge； and he
paid no heed to John Marshall's dicta in Marbury versus Madison。
He was zealous in discovering plausible excuses for making
vacancies。 The New York Evening Post described him as 〃gazing
round； with wild anxiety furiously inquiring； 'how are vacancies
to be obtained？'〃 Directly and indirectly； Jefferson effected；
during his first term； 164 changes in the offices at his
disposal； a large number for those days。 This he did so craftily；
with such delicate regard for geographical sensitiveness and with
such a nice balance between fitness for office and the desire for
office； that by the end of his second term he had not only
consolidated our first disciplined and eager political party； but
had quieted the storm against his policy of partizan
proscription。
During the long regime of the Jeffersonian Republicans there were
three significant movements。 In January； 1811； Nathaniel Macon
introduced his amendment to the Constitution providing that no
member of Congress should receive a civil appointment 〃under the
authority of the United States until the expiration of the
presidential term in which such person shall have served as
senator or representative。〃 An amendment was offered by Josiah
Quincy； making ineligible to appointment the relations by blood
or marriage of any senator or representative。 Nepotism was
considered the curse of the civil service； and for twenty years
similar amendments were discussed at almost every session of
Congress。 John Quincy Adams said that half of the members wanted
office； and the other half wanted office for their relatives。
In 1820 the Four Years' Act substituted a four…year tenure of
office； in place of a term at the pleasure of the President； for
most of the federal appointments。 The principal argument urged in
favor of the law was that unsatisfactory civil servants could
easily be dropped without reflection on their character。
Defalcations had been discovered to the amount of nearly a
million dollars； due mainly to carelessness and gross
inefficiency。 It was further argued that any efficient incumbent
need not be