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enough time； as it proved； for him to return the city to its
normal political life。
These examples are sufficient to illustrate the organization and
working of the municipal machine。 It must not be imagined by the
reader that these cities alone； and a few others made notorious
by the magazine muck…rakers； are the only American cities that
have developed oligarchies。 In truth； not a single American city；
great or small； has entirely escaped； for a greater or lesser
period； the sway of a coterie of politicians。 It has not always
been a corrupt sway； but it has rarely； if ever； given efficient
administration。
Happily there are not wanting signs that the general conditions
which have fostered the Ring are disappearing。 The period of
reform set in about 1890； when people began to be interested in
the study of municipal government。 It was not long afterwards
that the first authoritative books on the subject appeared。 Then
colleges began to give courses in municipal government； editors
began to realize the public's concern in local questions and to
discuss neighborhood politics as well as national politics。 By
1900 a new era brokethe era of the Grand Jury。 Nothing so
hopeful in local politics had occurred in our history as the
disclosures which followed。 They provoked the residuum of
conscience in the citizenry and the determination that honesty
should rule in public business and politics as well as in private
transactions。 The Grand Jury inquisitions； however； demonstrated
clearly that the criminal law was no remedy for municipal
misrule。 The great majority of floaters and illegal voters who
were indicted never faced a trial jury。 The results of the
prosecutions for bribery and grosser political crimes were
scarcely more encouraging。 It is true that one Abe Ruef in a
California penitentiary is worth untold sermons； editorials； and
platform admonitions； and serves as a potent warning to all
public malefactors。 Yet the example is soon forgotten； and the
people return to their former political habits。
But out of this decade of gang…hunting and its impressive
experiences with the shortcomings of our criminal laws came the
new municipal era which we have now fully entered； the era of
enlightened administration。 This new era calls for a
reconstruction of the city government。 Its principal feature is
the rapid spread of the Galveston or Commission form of
government and of its modification； the City Manager plan； the
aim of which is to centralize governmental authority and to
entice able men into municipal office。 And there are many other
manifestations of the new civic spirit。 The mesmeric influence of
national party names in civic politics is waning； the rise of
home rule for the city is severing the unholy alliance between
the legislature and the local Ring； the power to grant franchises
is being taken away from legislative bodies and placed directly
with the people； nominations are passing out of the hands of
cliques and are being made the gift of the voters through
petitions and primaries； efficient reforms in the taxing and
budgetary machinery have been instituted； and the development of
the merit system in the civil service is creating a class of
municipal experts beyond the reach of political gangsters。
There have sprung up all sorts of collateral organizations to
help the officials： societies for municipal research； municipal
reference libraries； citizens' unions； municipal leagues； and
municipal parties。 These are further supplemented by
organizations which indirectly add to the momentum of practical；
enlightened municipal sentiment： boards of commerce； associations
of business and professional men of every variety； women's clubs；
men's clubs； children's clubs； recreation clubs； social clubs；
every one with its own peculiar vigilance upon some corner of the
city's affairs。 So every important city is guarded by a network
of voluntary organizations。
All these changes in city government； in municipal laws and
political mechanisms； and in the people's attitude toward their
cities； have tended to dignify municipal service。 The city job
has been lifted to a higher plane。 Lord Rosebery； the brilliant
chairman of the first London County Council； the governing body
of the world's largest city； said many years ago： 〃I wish that my
voice could extend to every municipality in the kingdom； and
impress upon every man； however high his position； however great
his wealth； however consummate his talents may be； the importance
and nobility of municipal work。〃 It is such a spirit as this that
has made the government of Glasgow a model of democratic
efficiency； and it is the beginnings of this spirit that the
municipal historian finds developing in the last twenty years of
American life。 It is indeed difficult to see how our cities can
slip back again into the clutches of bosses and rings and repeat
the shameful history of the last decades of the nineteenth
century。
CHAPTER VII。 LEGISLATIVE OMNIPOTENCE
The American people； when they wrote their first state
constitutions； were filled with a profound distrust of executive
authority； the offspring of their experience with the arbitrary
King George。 So they saw to it that the executive authority in
their own government was reduced to its lowest terms； and that
the legislative authority； which was presumed to represent the
people； was exalted to legal omnipotence。 In the original States；
the legislature appointed many of the judicial and administrative
officers； it was above the executive veto； it had political
supremacy； it determined the form of local governments and
divided the State into election precincts； it appointed the
delegates to the Continental Congress； towards which it displayed
the attitude of a sovereign。 It was altogether the most important
arm of the state government； in fact it virtually was the state
government。 The Federal Constitution created a government of
specified powers； reserving to the States all authority not
expressly given to the central government。 Congress can legislate
only on subjects permitted by the Constitution； on the other
hand； a state legislature can legislate on any subject not
expressly forbidden。 The state legislature possesses authority
over a far wider range of subjects than Congresssubjects；
moreover； which press much nearer to the daily activities of the
citizens； such as the wide realm of private law； personal
relations； local government； and property。
In the earlier days； men of first…class ability； such as
Alexander Hamilton； Samuel Adams； and James Madison； did not
disdain membership in the state legislatures。 But the development
of party spirit and machine politics brought with it a great
change。 Then came the legislative caucus； and party politics soon
reigned in every capital。 As the legislature was ruled by the
majority； the dominant party elected presiding officers；
designated committees； appointed subordinates； and controlled
lawmaking。 The party was therefore in a position to pay its
political debts and bestow upon its supporters valuable favors。
Further； as the legislature apportioned the various electoral
distr