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with extraordinary acuteness； but if an opinion was needed as to
the entire character of a man or of a book； one could not be
sufficiently astonished at the narrowness and obliquity of his
views。 Nay； he was incapable of forming a correct estimate of the
character of those with whom he had lived for many years in the
most intimate friendship。 'The portrait；' says his biographer； 'was
ever full of life and expression； and had a strong resemblance to
the original if one compared it with the original from a certain
point of view； but it never gave a true and perfect representation
according to all its dimensions and circumstances。'
Chapter 32
The System of Values of Exchange （Continued） Jean Baptiste Say
and his School
This author on the whole has merely endeavoured to systematise；
to elucidate； and to popularise； the materials which Adam Smith had
gathered together after an irregular fashion。 In that he has
perfectly succeeded； inasmuch as he possessed in a high degree the
gift of systematisation and elucidation。 Nothing new or original is
to be found in his writings； save only that he asserted the
productiveness of mental labours； which Adam Smith denied。 Only；
this view； which is quite correct according to the theory of the
productive powers； stands opposed to the theory of exchangeable
values； and hence Smith is clearly more consistent than Say。 Mental
labourers produce directly no exchangeable values； nay； more； they
diminish by their consumption the total amount of material
productions and savings； and hence the total of material wealth。
Moreover； the ground on which Say from his point of view includes
mental labourers among the productive class； viz。 because they are
paid with exchangeable values； is an utterly baseless one； inasmuch
as those values have been already produced before they reach the
hands of the mental labourers； their possessor alone is changed；
but by that change their amount is not increased。 We can only term
mental labourers productive if we regard the productive powers of
the nation； and not the mere possession of exchangeable values； as
national wealth。 Say found himself opposed to Smith in this
respect； exactly as Smith had found himself opposed to the
physiocrats。
In order to include manufacturers among the productive class；
Smith had been obliged to enlarge the idea of what constitutes
wealth； and Say on his part had no other alternative than either to
adopt the absurd view that mental labourers are not productive； as
it was handed down to him by Adam Smith； or else to enlarge the
idea of wealth as Adam Smith had done in opposition to the
physiocrats； namely； to make it comprise productive power； and to
argue； national wealth does not consist in the possession of
exchangeable values； but in the possession of power to produce；
just as the wealth of a fisherman does not consist in the
possession of fish； but in the ability and the means of continually
catching fish to satisfy his wants。
It is noteworthy； and； so far as we are aware； not generally
known； that Jean Baptiste Say had a brother whose plain clear
common sense led him clearly to perceive the fundamental error of
the theory of values； and that J。 B。 Say himself expressed to his
doubting brother doubts as to the soundness of his own doctrine。
Louis Say wrote from Nantes； that a technical language had
become prevalent in political economy which had led to much false
reasoning； and that his brother Jean himself was not free from
it。（1*） According to Louis Say； the wealth of nations does not
consist in material goods and their value in exchange； but in the
ability continuously to produce such goods。 The exchange theory of
Smith and J。 B。 Say regards wealth from the narrow point of view of
an individual merchant； and this system； which would reform the
（so…called） mercantile system； is itself nothing else than a
restricted mercantile system。（2*） To these doubts and objections J。
B。 Say replied to his brother that 'his （J。 B。 Say's） method
（method？） （viz。 the theory of exchangeable values） was certainly
not the best； but that the difficulty was； to find a better。'（3*）
What！ difficult to find a better？ Had not brother Louis； then；
found one？ No； the real difficulty was that people had not the
requisite acuteness to grasp and to follow out the idea which the
brother had （certainly only in general terms） expressed； or rather；
perhaps； because it was very distasteful to have to overturn the
already established school； and to have to teach the precise
opposite of the doctrine by which one had acquired celebrity。 The
only original thing in J。 B。 Say's writings is the form of his
system； viz。 that he defined political economy as the science which
shows how material wealth is produced； distributed； and consumed。
It was by this classification and by his exposition of it that J。
B。 Say made his success and also his school； and no wonder： for
here everything lay ready to his hand； he knew how to explain so
clearly and intelligibly the special process of production； and the
individual powers engaged in it； he could set forth so lucidly
（within the limits of his own narrow circle） the principle of the
division of labour； and so clearly expound the trade of
individuals。 Every working potter； every huckster could understand
him； and do so the more readily； the less J。 B。 Say told him that
was new or unknown。 For that in the work of the potter； hands and
skill （labour） must be combined with clay （natural material） in
order by means of the potter's wheel； the oven； and fuel （capital）；
to produce pots （valuable products or values in exchange）； had been
well known long before in every respectable potter's workshop； only
they had not known how to describe these things in scientific
language； and by means of it to generalise upon them。 Also there
were probably very few hucksters who did not know before J。 B。
Say's time； that by exchange both parties could gain values in
exchange； and that if anyone exported 1；000 thalers' worth of
goods； and got for them 1；500 thalers' worth of other goods from
abroad； he would gain 500 thalers。
It was also well known before； that work leads to wealth； and
idleness to beggary； that private self…interest is the most
powerful stimulus to active industry； and that he who desires to
obtain young chickens； must not first eat the eggs。 Certainly
people had not known before that all this was political economy；
but they were delighted to be initiated with so little trouble into
t