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Third Book
The Systems
Chapter 28
The National Economists of Italy
Italy has been the forerunner of all modern nations； in the
theory as well as in the practice of Political Economy。 Count
Pechio has given us a laboriously written sketch of that branch of
Italian literature； only his book is open to the observation； that
he has clung too slavishly to the popular theory； and has not duly
set forth the fundamental causes of the decline of Italy's national
industry the absence of national unity； surrounded as she was by
great nationalities united under hereditary monarchies； further；
priestly rule and the downfall of municipal freedom in the Italian
republics and cities。 If he had more deeply investigated these
causes； he could not have failed to apprehend the special tendency
of the 'Prince' of Macchiavelli； and he would not have passed that
author by with merely an incidental reference to him。（1*）
Through a remark of Pechio； that Macchiavelli in a letter to
his friend Guicciardini （in 1525） had proposed a union of all the
Powers of Italy against the foreigner； and that as that letter was
communicated to Pope Clement VII he had thus exercised considerable
influence in the formation of the 'Holy League' （in 1526）； we were
led to imagine that the same tendency must underlie the 'Prince。'
As soon as we referred to that work； we found our anticipation
confirmed at first sight。 The object of the 'Prince' （written in
1513） was clearly to impress the Medici with the idea； that they
were called upon to unite the whole of Italy under one sovereignty；
and to indicate to them the means whereby that end might be
attained。 The title and form of that book； as though its general
intention was to treat of the nature of absolute government； were
undoubtedly selected from motives of prudence。 It only alludes
incidentally to the various hereditary Princes and their
governments。 Everywhere the author has in view only one Italian
usurper。 Principalities must be overthrown； dynasties destroyed；
the feudal aristocracy brought under subjection； liberty in the
republics rooted out。 The virtues of heaven and the artifices of
hell； wisdom and audacity； valour and treachery； good fortune and
chance； must all be called forth； made use of； and tried by the
usurper； in order to found an Italian empire。 And to this end a
secret is confided to him； the power of which has been thoroughly
made manifest three hundred years later a national army must be
created； to whom victory must be assured by new discipline and by
newly invented arms and manoeuvres。（2*）
If the general character of his arguments leaves room for doubt
as to the special bias of this author； such doubt will be removed
by his last chapter。 There he plainly declares that foreign
invasions and internal divisions are the fundamental causes of all
the evils prevailing in Italy； that the House of the Medici； under
whose dominion were （fortunately） Tuscany and the States of the
Church； were called by Providence itself to accomplish that great
work； that the present was the best time and opportunity for
introducing a new r間ime； that now a new Moses must arise to
deliver his people from the bondage of Egypt； that nothing
conferred on a Prince more distinction and fame than great
enterprises。（3*）
That anyone may read between the lines the tendency of that
book in the other chapters also； may be best seen by the manner in
which the author in his ninth chapter speaks of the States of the
Church。 It is merely an irony when he says； 'The priests possessed
lands but did not govern them； they held lordships but did not
defend them； these happiest of all territories were directly
protected by God's Providence； it would be presumption to utter a
criticism upon them。' He clearly by this language meant it to be
understood without saying so in plain words： This country presents
no special impediment to a bold conqueror； especially to a Medici
whose relative occupies the Papal chair。
But how can we explain the advice which Macchiavelli gives to
his proposed usurper respecting the republics； considering his own
republican sentiments？ And must it be solely attributed to a design
on his part to ingratiate himself with the Prince to whom his book
is dedicated； and thus to gain private advantages； when he； the
zealous republican； the great thinker and literary genius； the
patriotic martyr； advised the future usurper utterly to destroy the
freedom of the Italian republics？ It cannot be denied that
Macchiavelli； at the time when he wrote the 'Prince；' was
languishing in poverty； that he regarded the future with anxiety；
that he earnestly longed and hoped for employment and support from
the Medici。 A letter which he wrote on October 10； 1513； from his
poor dwelling in the country to his friend Bettori； at Florence；
places that beyond doubt。（4*）
Nevertheless； there are strong reasons for believing that he by
this book did not merely design to flatter the Medici； and to gain
private advantage； but to promote the realisation of a plan of
usurpation； a plan which was not opposed to his
republican…patriotic ideas； though according to the moral ideas of
our day it must be condemned as reprehensible and wicked。 His
writings and his deeds in the service of the State prove that
Macchiavelli was thoroughly acquainted with the history of all
periods； and with the political condition of all States。 But an eye
which could see so far backwards； and so clearly what was around
it； must also have been able to see far into the future。 A spirit
which even at the beginning of the sixteenth century recognised the
advantage of the national arming of Italy； must also have seen that
the time for small republics was past； that the period for great
monarchies had arrived； that nationality could； under the
circumstances then existing； be won only by means of usurpation；
and maintained only by despotism； that the oligarchies as they then
existed in the Italian republics constituted the greatest obstacle
to national unity； that consequently they must be destroyed； and
that national freedom would one day grow out of national unity。
Macchiavelli evidently desired to cast away the worn…out liberty of
a few cities as a prey to despotism； hoping by its aid to acquire
national union； and thus to insure to future generations freedom on
a greater and a nobler scale。
The earliest work written specially on Political Economy in
Italy； is that of Antonio Serra of