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people。
Every species of animals naturally multiplies in proportion
to the means of their subsistence； and no species can ever
multiply beyond it。 But in civilised society it is only among the
inferior ranks of people that the scantiness of subsistence can
set limits to the further multiplication of the human species；
and it can do so in no other way than by destroying a great part
of the children which their fruitful marriages produce。
The liberal reward of labour； by enabling them to provide
better for their children； and consequently to bring up a greater
number； naturally tends to widen and extend those limits。 It
deserves to be remarked； too； that it necessarily does this as
nearly as possible in the proportion which the demand for labour
requires。 If this demand is continually increasing； the reward of
labour must necessarily encourage in such a manner the marriage
and multiplication of labourers； as may enable them to supply
that continually increasing demand by a continually increasing
population。 If the reward should at any time be less than what
was requisite for this purpose； the deficiency of hands would
soon raise it； and if it should at any time be more； their
excessive multiplication would soon lower it to this necessary
rate。 The market would be so much understocked with labour in the
one case； and so much overstocked in the other； as would soon
force back its price to that proper rate which the circumstances
of the society required。 It is in this manner that the demand for
men； like that for any other commodity； necessarily regulates the
production of men； quickens it when it goes on too slowly； and
stops it when it advances too fast。 It is this demand which
regulates and determines the state of propagation in all the
different countries of the world； in North America； in Europe；
and in China； which renders it rapidly progressive in the first；
slow and gradual in the second； and altogether stationary in the
last。
The wear and tear of a slave； it has been said； is at the
expense of his master； but that of a free servant is at his own
expense。 The wear and tear of the latter； however； is； in
reality； as much at the expense of his master as that of the
former。 The wages paid to journeymen and servants of every kind
must be such as may enable them； one with another； to continue
the race of journeymen and servants； according as the increasing；
diminishing； or stationary demand of the society may happen to
require。 But though the wear and tear of a free servant be
equally at the expense of his master； it generally costs him much
less than that of a slave。 The fund destined for replacing or
repairing； if I may say so； the wear and tear of the slave； is
commonly managed by a negligent master or careless overseer。 That
destined for performing the same office with regard to the free
man； is managed by the free man himself。 The disorders which
generally prevail in the economy of the rich； naturally introduce
themselves into the management of the former： the strict
frugality and parsimonious attention of the poor as naturally
establish themselves in that of the latter。 Under such different
management； the same purpose must require very different degrees
of expense to execute it。 It appears； accordingly； from the
experience of all ages and nations； I believe； that the work done
by freemen comes cheaper in the end than that performed by
slaves。 It is found to do so even at Boston； New York； and
Philadelphia； where the wages of common labour are so very high。
The liberal reward of labour； therefore； as it is the effect
of increasing wealth； so it is the cause of increasing
population。 To complain of it is to lament over the necessary
effect and cause of the greatest public prosperity。
It deserves to be remarked； perhaps； that it is in the
progressive state； while the society is advancing to the further
acquisition； rather than when it has acquired its full complement
of riches； that the condition of the labouring poor； of the great
body of the people； seems to be the happiest and the most
comfortable。 It is hard in the stationary； and miserable in the
declining state。 The progressive state is in reality the cheerful
and the hearty state to all the different orders of the society。
The stationary is dull； the declining； melancholy。
The liberal reward of labour； as it encourages the
propagation； so it increases the industry of the common people。
The wages of labour are the encouragement of industry； which；
like every other human quality； improves in proportion to the
encouragement it receives。 A plentiful subsistence increases the
bodily strength of the labourer； and the comfortable hope of
bettering his condition； and of ending his days perhaps in ease
and plenty； animates him to exert that strength to the utmost。
Where wages are high； accordingly； we shall always find the
workmen more active； diligent； and expeditious than where they
are low： in England； for example； than in Scotland； in the
neighbourhood of great towns than in remote country places。 Some
workmen； indeed； when they can earn in four days what will
maintain them through the week； will be idle the other three。
This； however； is by no means the case with the greater part。
Workmen； on the contrary； when they are liberally paid by the
piece； are very apt to overwork themselves； and to ruin their
health and constitution in a few years。 A carpenter in London；
and in some other places； is not supposed to last in his utmost
vigour above eight years。 Something of the same kind happens in
many other trades； in which the workmen are paid by the piece； as
they generally are in manufactures； and even in country labour；
wherever wages are higher than ordinary。 Almost every class of
artificers is subject to some peculiar infirmity occasioned by
excessive application to their peculiar species of work。
Ramuzzini； an eminent Italian physician； has written a particular
book concerning such diseases。 We do not reckon our soldiers the
most industrious set of people among us。 Yet when soldiers have
been employed in some particular sorts of work； and liberally
paid by the piece； their officers have frequently been obliged to
stipulate with the undertaker； that they should not be allowed to
earn above a certain sum every day； according to the rate at
which they were paid。 Till this stipulation was made； mutual
emulation and the desire of greater gain frequently prompted them
to overwork themselves； and to hurt their health by excessive
labour。 Excessive application during four days of the week is
frequently the real cause of the idleness of the other three； so
much and so loudly complained of。 Great labour； either of mind or
body； continued for several days together； is in most men
naturally followed by a great desire of relaxation； which； if not
restrained by force or by some strong necessity； is almost
irresistible。 It is the