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recompense or wages of labour。
As soon as land becomes private property； the landlord
demands a share of almost all the produce which the labourer can
either raise； or collect from it。 His rent makes the first
deduction from the produce of the labour which is employed upon
land。
It seldom happens that the person who tills the ground has
wherewithal to maintain himself till he reaps the harvest。 His
maintenance is generally advanced to him from the stock of a
master； the farmer who employs him； and who would have no
interest to employ him； unless he was to share in the produce of
his labour； or unless his stock was to be replaced to him with a
profit。 This profit； makes a second deduction from the produce of
the labour which is employed upon land。
The produce of almost all other labour is liable to the like
deduction of profit。 In all arts and manufactures the greater
part of the workmen stand in need of a master to advance them the
materials of their work； and their wages and maintenance till it
be completed。 He shares in the produce of their labour； or in the
value which it adds to the materials upon which it is bestowed；
and in this share consists his profit。
It sometimes happens； indeed； that a single independent
workman has stock sufficient both to purchase the materials of
his work； and to maintain himself till it be completed。 He is
both master and workman； and enjoys the whole produce of his own
labour； or the whole value which it adds to the materials upon
which it is bestowed。 It includes what are usually two distinct
revenues； belonging to two distinct persons； the profits of
stock； and the wages of labour。
Such cases； however； are not very frequent； and in every
part of Europe； twenty workmen serve under a master for one that
is independent； and the wages of labour are everywhere understood
to be； what they usually are； when the labourer is one person；
and the owner of the stock which employs him another。
What are the common wages of labour； depends everywhere upon
the contract usually made between those two parties； whose
interests are by no means the same。 The workmen desire to get as
much； the masters to give as little as possible。 The former are
disposed to combine in order to raise； the latter in order to
lower the wages of labour。
It is not； however； difficult to foresee which of the two
parties must； upon all ordinary occasions； have the advantage in
the dispute； and force the other into a compliance with their
terms。 The masters； being fewer in number； can combine much more
easily； and the law； besides； authorizes； or at least does not
prohibit their combinations； while it prohibits those of the
workmen。 We have no acts of parliament against combining to lower
the price of work； but many against combining to raise it。 In all
such disputes the masters can hold out much longer。 A landlord； a
farmer； a master manufacturer； a merchant； though they did not
employ a single workman； could generally live a year or two upon
the stocks which they have already acquired。 Many workmen could
not subsist a week； few could subsist a month； and scarce any a
year without employment。 In the long run the workman may be as
necessary to his master as his master is to him； but the
necessity is not so immediate。
We rarely hear； it has been said； of the combinations of
masters； though frequently of those of workmen。 But whoever
imagines； upon this account； that masters rarely combine； is as
ignorant of the world as of the subject。 Masters are always and
everywhere in a sort of tacit； but constant and uniform
combination； not to raise the wages of labour above their actual
rate。 To violate this combination is everywhere a most unpopular
action； and a sort of reproach to a master among his neighbours
and equals。 We seldom； indeed； hear of this combination； because
it is the usual； and one may say； the natural state of things；
which nobody ever hears of。 Masters； too； sometimes enter into
particular combinations to sink the wages of labour even below
this rate。 These are always conducted with the utmost silence and
secrecy； till the moment of execution； and when the workmen
yield； as they sometimes do； without resistance； though severely
felt by them； they are never heard of by other people。 Such
combinations； however； are frequently resisted by a contrary
defensive combination of the workmen； who sometimes too； without
any provocation of this kind； combine of their own accord to
raise the price of their labour。 Their usual pretences are；
sometimes the high price of provisions； sometimes the great
profit which their masters make by their work。 But whether their
combinations be offensive or defensive； they are always
abundantly heard of。 In order to bring the point to a speedy
decision； they have always recourse to the loudest clamour； and
sometimes to the most shocking violence and outrage。 They are
desperate； and act with the folly and extravagance of desperate
men； who must either starve； or frighten their masters into an
immediate compliance with their demands。 The masters upon these
occasions are just as clamorous upon the other side； and never
cease to call aloud for the assistance of the civil magistrate；
and the rigorous execution of those laws which have been enacted
with so much severity against the combinations of servants；
labourers； and journeymen。 The workmen； accordingly； very seldom
derive any advantage from the violence of those tumultuous
combinations； which； partly from the interposition of the civil
magistrate； partly from the necessity superior steadiness of the
masters； partly from the necessity which the greater part of the
workmen are under of submitting for the sake of present
subsistence； generally end in nothing； but the punishment or ruin
of the ringleaders。
But though in disputes with their workmen； masters must
generally have the advantage； there is； however； a certain rate
below which it seems impossible to reduce； for any considerable
time； the ordinary wages even of the lowest species of labour。
A man must always live by his work； and his wages must at
least be sufficient to maintain him。 They must even upon most
occasions be somewhat more； otherwise it would be impossible for
him to bring up a family； and the race of such workmen could not
last beyond the first generation。 Mr。 Cantillon seems； upon this
account； to suppose that the lowest species of common labourers
must everywhere earn at least double their own maintenance； in
order that one with another they may be enabled to bring up two
children； the labour of the wife； on account of her necessary
attendance on the children； being supposed no more than
sufficient to provide for herself。 But one half the children
born； it is computed； die before the age of manhood。 The poorest
labourers； therefore； according to this account； must； one with
another； attempt to rear at