a history of science-1-第62章

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ld　have　balked　at　the　greater　distance；　and　since　the　protests　of　the　sailors；　which　nearly　thwarted　his　efforts；　were　made　long　before　the　distance　as　estimated　by　Ptolemy　had　been　covered；　nevertheless　it　is　interesting　to　recall　that　the　great　geographical　doctrines；　upon　which　Columbus　must　chiefly　have　based　his　arguments；　had　been　before　the　world　in　an　authoritative　form　practically　unheeded　for　more　than　twelve　hundred　years；　awaiting　a　champion　with　courage　enough　to　put　them　to　the　test。

GALENTHE　LAST　GREAT　ALEXANDRIAN　There　is　one　other　field　of　scientific　investigation　to　which　we　must　give　brief　attention　before　leaving　the　antique　world。　This　is　the　field　of　physiology　and　medicine。　In　considering　it　we　shall　have　to　do　with　the　very　last　great　scientist　of　the　Alexandrian　school。　This　was　Claudius　Galenus；　commonly　known　as　Galen；　a　man　whose　fame　was　destined　to　eclipse　that　of　all　other　physicians　of　antiquity　except　Hippocrates；　and　whose　doctrines　were　to　have　the　same　force　in　their　field　throughout　the　Middle　Ages　that　the　doctrines　of　Aristotle　had　for　physical　science。　But　before　we　take　up　Galen's　specific　labors；　it　will　be　well　to　inquire　briefly　as　to　the　state　of　medical　art　and　science　in　the　Roman　world　at　the　time　when　the　last　great　physician　of　antiquity　came　upon　the　scene。　The　Romans；　it　would　appear；　had　done　little　in　the　way　of　scientific　discoveries　in　the　field　of　medicine；　but；　nevertheless；　with　their　practicality　of　mind；　they　had　turned　to　better　account　many　more　of　the　scientific　discoveries　of　the　Greeks　than　did　the　discoverers　themselves。　The　practising　physicians　in　early　Rome　were　mostly　men　of　Greek　origin；　who　came　to　the　capital　after　the　overthrow　of　the　Greeks　by　the　Romans。　Many　of　them　were　slaves；　as　earning　money　by　either　bodily　or　mental　labor　was　considered　beneath　the　dignity　of　a　Roman　citizen。　The　wealthy　Romans；　who　owned　large　estates　and　numerous　slaves；　were　in　the　habit　of　purchasing　some　of　these　slave　doctors；　and　thus　saving　medical　fees　by　having　them　attend　to　the　health　of　their　families。　By　the　beginning　of　the　Christian　era　medicine　as　a　profession　had　sadly　degenerated；　and　in　place　of　a　class　of　physicians　who　practised　medicine　along　rational　or　legitimate　lines；　in　the　footsteps　of　the　great　Hippocrates；　there　appeared　great　numbers　of　〃specialists；〃　most　of　them　charlatans；　who　pretended　to　possess　supernatural　insight　in　the　methods　of　treating　certain　forms　of　disease。　These　physicians　rightly　earned　the　contempt　of　the　better　class　of　Romans；　and　were　made　the　object　of　many　attacks　by　the　satirists　of　the　time。　Such　specialists　travelled　about　from　place　to　place　in　much　the　same　manner　as　the　itinerant　〃Indian　doctors〃　and　〃lightning　tooth…extractors〃　do　to…day。　Eye…doctors　seem　to　have　been　particularly　numerous；　and　these　were　divided　into　two　classes；　eye…surgeons　and　eye…doctors　proper。　The　eye…surgeon　performed　such　operations　as　cauterizing　for　ingrowing　eyelashes　and　operating　upon　growths　about　the　eyes；　while　the　eye…doctors　depended　entirely　upon　salves　and　lotions。　These　eye…salves　were　frequently　stamped　with　the　seal　of　the　physician　who　compounded　them；　something　like　two　hundred　of　these　seals　being　still　in　existence。　There　were　besides　these　quacks；　however；　reputable　eye…doctors　who　must　have　possessed　considerable　skill　in　the　treatment　of　certain　ophthalmias。　Among　some　Roman　surgical　instruments　discovered　at　Rheims　were　found　also　some　drugs　employed　by　ophthalmic　surgeons；　and　an　analysis　of　these　show　that　they　contained；　among　other　ingredients；　some　that　are　still　employed　in　the　treatment　of　certain　affections　of　the　eye。　One　of　the　first　steps　taken　in　recognition　of　the　services　of　physicians　was　by　Julius　Caesar；　who　granted　citizenship　to　all　physicians　practising　in　Rome。　This　was　about　fifty　years　before　the　Christian　era；　and　from　that　time　on　there　was　a　gradual　improvement　in　the　attitude　of　the　Romans　towards　the　members　of　the　medical　profession。　As　the　Romans　degenerated　from　a　race　of　sturdy　warriors　and　became　more　and　more　depraved　physically；　the　necessity　for　physicians　made　itself　more　evident。　Court　physicians；　and　physicians…in…ordinary；　were　created　by　the　emperors；　as　were　also　city　and　district　physicians。　In　the　year　133　A。D。　Hadrian　granted　immunity　from　taxes　and　military　service　to　physicians　in　recognition　of　their　public　services。　The　city　and　district　physicians；　known　as　the　archiatri　populaires；　treated　and　cared　for　the　poor　without　remuneration；　having　a　position　and　salary　fixed　by　law　and　paid　them　semi…annually。　These　were　honorable　positions；　and　the　archiatri　were　obliged　to　give　instruction　in　medicine；　without　pay；　to　the　poor　students。　They　were　allowed　to　receive　fees　and　donations　from　their　patients；　but　not；　however；　until　the　danger　from　the　malady　was　past。　Special　laws　were　enacted　to　protect　them；　and　any　person　subjecting　them　to　an　insult　was　liable　to　a　fine　〃not　exceeding　one　thousand　pounds。〃　An　example　of　Roman　practicality　is　shown　in　the　method　of　treating　hemorrhage；　as　described　by　Aulus　Cornelius　Celsus　（53　B。C。　to　7　A。D。）。　Hippocrates　and　Hippocratic　writers　treated　hemorrhage　by　application　of　cold；　pressure；　styptics；　and　sometimes　by　actual　cauterizing；　but　they　knew　nothing　of　the　simple　method　of　stopping　a　hemorrhage　by　a　ligature　tied　around　the　bleeding　vessel。　Celsus　not　only　recommended　tying　the　end　of　the　injured　vessel；　but　describes　the　method　of　applying　two　ligatures　before　the　artery　is　divided　by　the　surgeona　common　practice　among　surgeons　at　the　present　time。　The　cut　is　made　between　these　two；　and　thus　hemorrhage　is　avoided　from　either　end　of　the　divided　vessel。　Another　Roman　surgeon；　Heliodorus；　not　only　describes　the　use　of　the　ligature　in　stopping　hemorrhage；　but　also　the　practice　of　torsiontwisting　smaller　vessels；　which　causes　their　lining　membrane　to　contract　in　a　manner　that　produces　coagulation　and　stops　hemorrhage。　It　is　remarkable　that　so　simple　and　practical　a　method　as　the　use　of　the　ligature　in　stopping　hemorrhage　could　have　gone　out　of　use；　once　it　had　been　discovered；　but　during　the　Middle　Ages　it　was　almost　entirely　lost　sight　of；　and　was　not　reintroduced　until　the　time　of　Ambroise　Pare；　in　the　sixteenth　century。　Even　at　a　very　early　period　the　Romans　recognized　the　advantage　of　surgical　methods　on　the　field　of　battle。　Each　soldier　was　supplied　with　bandages；　and　was　probably　instructed　in　applying　them；　something　in　the　same　manner　as　is　done　now　in　all　modern　armies。　The　Romans　also　made　use　of　military　hospitals　and　had　established　a　rude　but　very　practical　field…ambulance　service。　〃In　every　troop　or　bandon　of　two　or　four　hundred　men；　eight　or　ten　stout　fellows　were　deputed　to　ride　immediately　behind　the　fighting…line　to　pick　up　and　rescue　the　wounded；　for　which　purpose　their　saddles　had　two　stirrups　on　the　left　side；　while　they　themselves　were　provided　with　water…flasks；　and　perhaps　applied　temporary　bandages。　They　were　encouraged　by　a　reward　of　a　piece　of　gold　for　each　man　they　rescued。　'Noscomi'　were　male　nurses　attached　to　the　military　hospitals；　but　not　inscribed　'on　strength'　of　the　legions；　and　were　probably