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memory。 He would then distract himself for an interval by
studying other lists； and then relearn the original list。
Ebbinghaus called the difference between the time to learn the
list originally and the time to relearn the list as savings。
e） Ebbinghaus； and many psychologists that followed him；
assumed that there was only one type of memory。 This
assumption turned out to be incorrect。
C。 Types of Memory
1。 Implicit and Explicit Memory
a） Implicit memory is that which bees available without
conscious effort
b） Explicit memory is that in which the individual makes a
conscious effort to recover information
2。 Declarative and Procedural Memory
a） Declarative memory involves the recollection of facts and events
b） Procedural memory involves the recollection of how to do
things
c） Knowledge pilation is the ability to carry out sequences of
activity without conscious intervention。 Knowledge
pilation makes it difficult to share procedural knowledge。
D。 An Overview of Memory Processes
1。 All memory requires the operation of three mental processes：
a） Encoding； the initial processing of information that leads to
representation in memory
b） Storage； the retention over time of encoded information
c） Retrieval； the recovery of the stored information at a later time
2。 Mental traces are the mental representations of individual memories
II。Sensory Memory
A。 Sensory Memory refers to the initial memory processes involved in the momentary
preservation of fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli。 Each of your sensory modalities has
a sensory memory or sensory register that extends the availability of information acquired
from the environment
B。 Iconic Memory
1。 Iconic memory is sensory memory in the visual domain
2。 A visual memory； or icon； lasts about half a second
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3。 Iconic memory is not the same as eidetic imagery； or photographic memory；
which holds images in memory much longer than iconic memory。
Eidetic imagery is rarely found in adults
C。 Echoic Memory
1。 Echoic memory is sensory memory for sounds
2。 Echoic memories are easily displaced by new information that is similar
to the sensory experience that gave rise to the memory
3。 The suffix effect； where a similar sound impedes memory by replacing
a sensory memory in the final digit in echoic memory； is an example of
the displacement of echoic memories
4。 Categorization influences echoic memory because what organisms
believe that they are hearing determines the relevance and importance
of the memory
III。 Short…Term Memory and Working Memory
A。 Definitions
1。 Short…term memory is a built…in mechanism for focusing cognitive
resources on a small set of mental representations
2。 Working memory is a broader concept of the types of memory processes
that provide a foundation for the moment…by…moment fluidity of
thought and action
B。 The Capacity Limitations of Short…Term Memory
1。 The limited capacity of short…term memory enforces a sharp focus of
attention
2。 George Miller proposed that seven； plus or minus two； was the “magic
number” that characterized the limits of short…term memory
C。 Acmodating to Short…Term Memory Capacity
1。 Despite the severe limitations of short…term memory； individuals are
able to enhance the functioning of short…term memory in several ways：
a） Rehearsal involves the rapid repetition of information that is
designed to keep it in short…term memory
b） Chunking involves the grouping of information into
meaningful units that can then occupy a single digit of short…
term memory
c） The high speed of the retrieval process from short…term
memory
2。 Rehearsal and chunking both relate to the way in which you encode
information to enhance the probability that it will remain or fit in
short…term memory
D。 Working Memory
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CHAPTER 8： MEMORY
1。 Working memory； which subsumes classic short…term memory and
also allows retrieval of existing memories； is prised of three
ponents：
a） A phonological loop； which holds and manipulates speech…
based information
b） A visuospatial sketchpad； which performs the same types of
functions as the phonological loop for visual and spatial
information
c） A central executive； which is responsible for controlling
attention and coordinating information from other
subsystems
2。 Incorporating short…term memory under working memory helps
reinforce the idea that short…term memory is a process； not a place
3。 Working memory span is a measure of the capacity of working memory
4。 Working memory helps maintain your psychological present
IV。 Long…term Memory： Encoding and Retrieval
A。 Definitions
1。 Long…term memory is the storehouse of all the experiences； events；
information； emotions； skills； words； categories； rules； and judgments
that have been acquired from sensory and short…term memories
2。 Long…term memory is best when there is a good match between
encoding and retrieval conditions
B。 Context and Encoding
1。 Encoding specificity suggests that memories emerge most efficiently
when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding
2。 The Serial Position Effect suggests that the first and last items in a series
will be remembered better than items in the middle and is prised
of two separate effects：
a） The Primacy Effect suggests that the first items learned in a
series will be remembered better than others
b） The Recency Effect suggests that the last items learned in a
series will be remembered better than others
c） Contextual Distinctiveness suggests that the distinctiveness of
an item in a series may explain both the primacy and the
recency effects
C。 Retrieval Cues
1。 Recall involves the reproduction of information to which you were
previously exposed
2。 Recognition refers to the realization that a certain stimulus event is one
you have seen or heard before
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3。 Retrieval cues are the stimuli available as you search for a particular
memory
a） Retrieval cues can be provided externally by the environment；
or generated internally by associations and physical states
b） Retrieval cues are more straightforward and more useful for
recognition dm for recall
4。 Episodic and Semantic memory are two types of declarative memory
a） Episodic memories preserve； individually； the specific events
that you have personally experienced
（i） All memories begin as episodic memories
b） Semantic memories are generic； categorical memories； such as
the meanings of words and concepts
5。 Interference occurs when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one
specific memory
a） Proactive interference occurs when information acquired in the
past makes it more difficult to acquire new information
b） Retroactive interference occurs when the acquisition of new
information makes it harder to remember older information
D。 The Processes of Encoding and Retrieval
1。 Memory functions best when encoding and retrieval processes match
2。 Levels…of…Processing theory suggests that the deeper the level at whi