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2。 As an individual prepares for bed； brain wave activity averages about
14 cycles per second （cps）
3。 Stage 1 sleep is characterized by brain waves of about 3 to 7 cps
4。 Stage 2 sleep is characterized by sleep spindles； minute bursts of
electrical activity of 12 to 16 cps
5。 Stage 3 sleep is characterized by deep relaxation and brain wave
activity of about 1 to 2 cps
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
6。 Stage 4 sleep is characterized by even deeper relaxation and very slow
brain wave activity
7。 REM （Rapid Eye Movement） sleep is characterized by a return to brain
wave activity similar to that found in stages 1 and 2； by the rapid eye
movements for which this stage is named； and by the presence of
dreams
8。 The first four stages of sleep require about 90 minutes。 REM sleep
about 10 minutes。 During the course of a night； this 100…minute cycle
is repeated four to six times。
C。 Why Sleep？
1。 The two most general functions of NREM sleep are conservation and
restoration
a） Sleep helps conserve energy because it often occurs when
foraging for food； searching for mates； or moving about is
unnecessary or dangerous
b） Sleep serves a restorative function because neurotransmitters
and neuromodulators may be synthesized and their balance
restored during sleep
2。 The function of REM sleep appears to be related to the maintenance of
mood and emotion； storing memories； and fitting recent experiences
into existing memories。 REM sleep may also restore the balance of the
brain after NREM sleep。
D。 Sleep Disorders
1。 Insomnia is the inability to get a satisfactory amount or quality of sleep
and is characterized by an inability to fall asleep； frequent arousal； or
early morning awakening
2。 Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by a periodic pulsion
to sleep during the daytime
3。 Sleep Apnea is an upper respiratory sleep disorder in which the person
stops breathing while asleep； which causes the sufferer to awake
immediately and begin breathing again
4。 Excessive Daytime Sleepiness is the major plaint of individuals
evaluated at sleep disorder centers。 About one…third of adults report
excessive sleepiness during the daytime。
E。 Dreams： Theater of the Mind
1。 Most dreams take place during REM sleep。 Dreams that take place
during NREM sleep tend to be full of specific thoughts but devoid of
dramatic content or vivid sensory imagery。
2。 NREM dreams are recalled less often than REM dreams； but NREM
dreaming is enhanced during the very late morning hours。
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3。 Most cultures instill the belief that dreams have meaning； but they do
so in diverse ways
a） The most prominent Western theory of dreams was proposed
by Sigmund Freud
b） Freud believed dreams to be “the royal road to the
unconscious”
c） In The Interpretation of Dreams； Freud made dreams a
cornerstone of psychoanalysis。 Dreams； to Freud； were “wish
fulfillment” of powerful； unconscious desires that were
disguised in dream form。
d） The latent content of a dream referred to the hidden wish or
meaning of the dream
e） This latent content is transformed into a disguised form； or
manifest content； through the process of dream work
f） Dream work takes forbidden wishes and transforms them into
often bizarre but acceptable forms that are experienced as
dreams
g） The interpretation of dreams requires working backward from
the manifest content to the latent content； to revealing the
unconscious wishes expressed in the dream
h） Freud’s theory of dream interpretation relates dream symbols；
which may have both universal and personal meanings； to
his explicit theory of psychology
4。 Non…Western Approaches to Dream Interpretation
a） In many non…Western cultures； dream interpretation is part of
the fabric of the culture
b） In the Mayan culture； shamans function as dream interpreters
and play a central role in Mayan interpersonal relations and
in tying the Mayan culture to their ancestral roots
c） In other cultures； such as the people of the Ingessana Hills
（bordering Ethiopia and Sudan） and the Kapolo Indians of
Brazil； dreams represent visions of the future
F。 Physiological Theories of Dream Content
1。 Represent the greatest challenge to the Freudian Theory of Dreams
2。 The Activation–Synthesis Model of Dreams suggests that dreams are
the brain’s attempt to make sense of essentially random neural firings
that occur during sleep。 In an inexorable quest for meaning； the brain
weaves random neural activity into a strange but prehensible
narrative based on memories； beliefs； values； goals； and expectations。
G。 Nightmares
1。 Nightmares are dreams that make the dreamer feel helpless or out of
control
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
2。 Nightmares are often triggered by stress； especially fear of harm and
desertion； and usually only occur a few times each year
3。 Traumatic events may make individuals more likely to have
nightmares that force them to relive some aspect of the traumatic event
IV。 Alerted States of Consciousness
A。 Lucid Dreaming
1。 Lucid dreaming involves conscious awareness while an individual is
dreaming； that they are dreaming
2。 Research suggests that the ability to lucid dream can be taught
3。 Some researchers； such as LaBerge； argue that lucid dreaming
enhances self…esteem and generates positive experiences by giving
individuals control over the often uncontrollable events of dreams and
nightmares
4。 Others argue that lucid dreaming interferes with and distorts the
natural process of dreaming
B。 Hypnosis
1。 Hypnosis is an alternative state of awareness characterized by the
special ability some people have of responding to suggestion with
changes in perception； memory； motivation； and sense of self…control
a） Some researchers believe that hypnotized individuals enter a
trance； although research suggests that this is not the case
b） Some believe that hypnosis is a kind of placebo response；
although some research suggests an added benefit beyond
that derived from a placebo
2。 Hypnotic Induction and Hypnotizability
a） A hypnotic induction is a preliminary set of activities that
minimizes external distractions and encourages the
participant to enter a hypnotic state
b） Hypnotizability refers to the degree to which an individual is
responsive to standardized suggestions to experience
hypnotic reactions
c） Hypnotizability varies widely from person to person； is
relatively stable over time； and may have some genetic
determinants； although it is not correlated with any
personality trait
3。 Effects of Hypnosis
a） One undisputed value of hypnosis is pain reduction （hypnotic
analgesia）。 Hypnotic analgesia has proved especially
valuable to surgery patients that are allergic to anesthesia； to
mothers in natural childbirth； and to cancer patients learning
to endure chronic pain associated with their disease。
b） Self…hypnosis is the best approach to controlling pain because
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