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（a） People are not entirely swayed by normative
influence。 They assert their independence on a
majority of occasions
（b） People will sometimes conform； even in the most
unambiguous situations。 That potential to
conform is an important element of human
nature
4。 Conformity in Everyday Life： Minority influence and nonconformity
a） Majority decisions tend to be made without engaging the
systematic thought and critical thinking skills of the
individuals in the group
b） Minority groups have little normative influence； but they do
have informational influence
c） The majority tends to be the defender of the status quo
5。 Groupthink is the tendency of a decision…making group to filter out
undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached； especially if
the consensus is in line with the leader’s viewpoint。
E。 Situational Power： Candid Camera Revelations
1。 Smart； independent； rational； good people can be led to behave in
ways that are foolish； pliant； irrational； and evil
2。 Human nature follows a situational script to the letter
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CHAPTER 17： SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
IInstructing Social Reality
A。 Social Reality
1。 Two individuals； observing the same event； may interpret it in very
different ways。 Each constructs social reality in a unique way； bringing
his or her personal knowledge and experience to bear in interpreting
the situation
2。 There is no objective social reality； there are only the individual’s
construction and interpretation of it
3。 Social Perception is the process by which people e to understand
and categorize the behaviors of others
B。 The Origins of Attribution Theory
1。 Attribution theory is a general approach to describe the ways the
social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations
a） Heider suggested people are all intuitive psychologists；
attempting to discern what people are like and what causes
their behavior
b） Heider suggested that questions dominating most
attributional analyses are whether the cause of the behavior
is dispositional （internal） or situational （external）
2。 Kelley observed that people most often make causal attributions for
events under conditions of uncertainty using the covariation principle
a） Covariation principle： People attribute behavior to a causal
factor if that factor was present when the behavior occurred；
but was absent whenever the behavior didn’t occur
b） Covariation is assessed using three dimensions of
information
（i） Distinctiveness refers to whether the behavior is
specific to a particular situation
（ii） Consistency refers to whether the behavior occurs
repeatedly in response to this situation
（iii） Consensus refers to whether other people also
produce the same behavior in the same situation
C。 The Fundamental Attribution Error
1。 The Fundamental Attribution Error （FAE） represents the dual
tendency for people to overestimate dispositional factors and to
underestimate situational ones when searching for the cause of some
behavior of oute
a） The FAE may be due in part to cultural sources
D。 Self…serving bias leads people to take credit for their successes while denying
responsibility for their failures
E。 Expectations and Self…Fulfilling Prophecies
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
1。 Self…fulfilling prophecies are predictions made about some future
behavior or event that modifies interactions to produce what is
expected
2。 Expectations are powerful and self…fulfilling prophecies are most
likely to occur when the individual has not had an opportunity to
develop accurate expectations before judgments must be made
F。 Behaviors that Confirm Expectations
1。 Behavioral confirmation is the process by which someone’s
expectations about another person actually influence the second
person to behave in ways that confirm the original hypothesis
a） Behavior confirmation depends on the availability of
accurate information from the environment
b） Expectations have their greatest effect when the actual state
of the world is uncertain
III。 Attitudes； Attitude Change； and Action
A。 Attitudes and Behaviors
1。 An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of people； objects； or
ideas
2。 Three types of experiences give rise to attitudes：
a） Cognitive
b） Affective
c） Behavioral
3。 One property of attitudes that predicts behavior is accessibility； the
strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s
evaluation of that object
a） Attitudes are more accessible when they are based on direct
experience
4。 Attitudes are more predictive of behavior when the attitudes and
behaviors are measured at the same level of specificity
B。 Processes of Persuasion
1。 Persuasion refers to deliberate efforts to change attitude
2。 The Elaboration Likelihood Model suggests that there are two routes to
persuasion：
a） The Central Route represents circumstances in which people
think carefully about a persuasive munication so that
attitude change depends on the logical strength of the
arguments。 Central route arguments depend on facts；
features； and objective qualities。
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CHAPTER 17： SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
b） The Peripheral Route represents circumstances in which
people do not focus critically on the message； but respond to
superficial cues in the situation。 Peripheral route messages
depend on sex appeal； image； prestige； and subjective
qualities。
3。 The route that people take depends on their motivation to process
and critically analyze the message
C。 Persuasion by Your Own Actions
1。 Dissonance Theory
a） Cognitive dissonance is the state of conflict someone
experiences after making a decision； taking an action； or
being exposed to information that is contrary to prior beliefs；
feelings； or values
（i） Dissonance…reducing activities modify the
unpleasant state and achieve consonance among
cognitions
（ii） Dissonance has motivational force and impels the
individual to act to reduce the unpleasant feeling
（iii） The greater the dissonance； the greater the
motivation to reduce it
b） Under conditions of high dissonance； the individual acts to
justify his or her behavior after the fact； engages in self…
persuasion； and often bees a convincing municator
c） Recently researchers have begun to question whether
dissonance effects generalize to cultures in which
individuals have an interdependent conception of self； such
as in Japan
2。 Self…Perception theory
a） Given that in Western culture； people are quick to make
dispositional attributions about the behavior of others； it
should not be surprising that they have the same bias
toward themselves
（i） Internal states are inferred by perceiving how one is
acting now and recalling how one was active in a
given situation in the past
（ii） Self…knowledge allows the individual to reason
backward to the most likely causes or determinants
of behavior
b） Self…perception theory lacks the motivational ponents of
dissonance theory
D。 pliance
1。 Often people want to change not only your attitude