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· Increased perspiration
One thing that makes stress difficult to define； explain； diagnose； and treat is that stress is a subjective state。
What stresses you may not stress other people。 Negative or unpleasant events are more likely to be
perceived as stressful than positive events； although positive events such as childbirth can also be stressful。
Negative events cause more psychological distress and produce more physiological symptoms than do
positive events。 Uncontrollable or unpredictable events are more stressful than those that are controllable or
predictable。 Unpredictable events may be more stressful； because there is no opportunity to prepare for
coping with them。 Ambiguous events are more stressful than are clear…cut events； whether the events are
good or bad。 Ambiguous events can leave you stuck in a problem…solving stage in which you attempt to
understand what caused the event and its meaning。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Stress is a potential causal factor in illness； in that it can open the door for both physical and psychological
problems。 Some of the earlier work in this area looked at the role played in illness by Major Stressful Life
Events （MSLE）。 This research showed the impact of MSLEs using a questionnaire entitled the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale （SRRS）。 Each item on the scale has been given a certain number of points； with
higher numbers corresponding to more stressful events。 Once a respondent has pleted the scale； the
points for each item are totaled。 The higher the score on the scale； the higher the stress level。
In addition to large stressful events； psychologists have recently e to believe that daily hassles may have
a larger detrimental impact on us than previously thought。 Research suggests that these chronic stressors
are more predictive of physical and psychological illness than are the more acute stressors found on the
SRRS。
COPING WITH STRESSFUL EVENTS
According to Lazarus； coping is the process of attempting to manage demands that are viewed as taxing or
exceeding one’s resources。 It is the process of trying to manage and master stressful events。 Researchers
distinguish between two types of coping that can occur simultaneously：
。 Problem…Solving Efforts； which are attempts to do something constructive to change the stressful
circumstances
。 Emotion…Focused coping； which involves efforts to regulate the emotional reactions to stressful events。
What constitutes successful coping？ Researchers in this area differ in the criteria by which they measure
successful coping。 However； we can say that coping efforts are deemed successful if they：
。 Reduce physiological arousal and its indicators such as heart rate
。 Permit a quick return to previous life patterns
。 Reduce psychological distress； such as anxiety and depression
COPING STYLES
Coping style is an internal coping resource； consisting of a general tendency for a person to deal with a
stressful event in a particular way。 Examples of coping styles include：
Avoidance versus Confrontation
Some people meet events head…on； tackling problems directly。 Others attempt to minimize the
significance or withdraw from such events； often through alcohol and drugs。 Avoiders may not be able
to deal with the possibility of future threats and may fail in their attempts at making efforts to anticipate
and manage subsequent problems。 On the other hand； confronters may deal effectively with long…term
threats； although in the short…run they may be more anxious as they deal directly with the stressor。
Type A Behavior
There are coping styles that successfully deal with stress； but that also have an adverse impact on
health。 One of them； Type A Behavior； has been associated with heart disease for several years。 The
Type A individual was first identified in 1978 and is characterized by aggression； petition；
achievement； time urgency； and hostility。 Type A individuals lead fast…track lives。 Many of your
students are probably junior Type A’s。 They work long hours； are impatient with what they perceive as
slow behavior in others； and often finish other people’s sentences for them。 The Type A behavior
syndrome is important because it has been reliably related to the development of coronary artery
disease； as a function of excessive physiological arousal in response to stressful events。 Recently；
researchers have identified the hostility ponent of Type A behavior as more damaging than time
urgency or petitiveness to the circulatory system。
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CHAPTER 13： EMOTION； STRESS； AND HEALTH
SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR STRESS
Socially supportive relationships may mitigate the effects of stress by helping people cope with and resolve
problems。 Social relationships promote health。 Social support is an interpersonal exchange in which one
person gives help to another。 It may be provided in numerous ways； including：
。 Emotional concern； as expressed through liking； love； sympathy； and empathy
。 Instrumental aid through the provision of goods or services during someone’s time of need
。 Providing information about a stressful situation； perhaps a similar one experienced by them
。 Reassurance by others that you are acting in a reasonable； responsible manner
We have a great deal of data to indicate that social support during times of stress can effectively reduce
psychological distress。 People who had families who stayed in the Middle East with them during the Gulf
War did much better psychologically than those who had no family there and those whose families
returned to their native country。 Social support also seems both to decrease the likelihood of physical illness
and to speed recovery。 Research has been attempting to identify precisely how social support mitigates
stress and has arrived at two hypotheses：
。 The Direct Effects Hypothesis suggests that social support is always beneficial； during both stressful
and nonstressful times。
。 The Buffering Hypothesis suggests that the physical and mental health benefits of social support occur
mainly during periods of high stress and not during periods of low stress。
Extensive research suggests that both hypotheses are at least partially correct。
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Some of us have a tough time managing and coping with stress on our own。 In such cases； stress
management programs are helpful。 As an example； college can be an appallingly stressful experience for
students。 Being away from home； living with strangers； sharing living space； taking demanding courses；
and increased petition for grades can be very stressful。 Many colleges offer programs to help students
adjust to and cope with the stresses of university life by teaching them stress management techniques。 One
important lesson of these courses is that stress is subjective and self…reinforcing。 The more stressful you
perceive an event to be； the more stressful it will bee。 These programs also teach students to recognize
and record things that stress them out and to write down their reactions to these events。 Sharing
experiences and learning relaxation techniques are also useful ponents o